mohammadhassan sayyari zahan

Common millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) belonging to the family Gramineae is a warm-season grass with a growing season length of 60–100 days. It is specially adapted to hot summers in the tropics and high altitudes, where the growing season is short, and the soil is poor in fertility. Among grain crops, common millet has the lowest water requirement and can grow on any type of soil except coarse sand. Therefore, appropriate management of common millet is necessary to maximize yield and yield components. Organic matter is one of the most important constituents of soil, significantly affecting the availability of nutrients and improving the soil's physical, chemical, and biological properties. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of different levels of municipal waste compost and orange waste compost on vegetative, reproductive growth, and yield of common millet.

The experiment was designed as a factorial arrangement based on a randomized complete block design with three replications under field conditions in Gonabad during the growing season of 2018. Treatments were three levels of municipal waste compost (0, 7.5, and 15 t.ha-1) and three levels of orange waste compost (0, 7.5, and 15 t.ha-1). The measured indices including vegetative characteristics (plant height (cm), number of tillers per plant, plant dry weight (g.plant-1), number of leaves per plant, panicle height (cm)) and reproductive characteristics (seed yield per plant (g), 1000-seed weight (g), seed yield, biological yield (kg.ha-1) and harvest index). Finally, the experimental data were statistically analyzed using the SAS program ver. 9.1 and comparison of means was performed by LSD test at 5% probability level.

The results showed that with increasing use of municipal waste compost as well as orange compost in soil, plant height, dry weight and grain yield and harvest index increased. The highest amount of municipal waste compost (15 t.ha-1) and orange waste compost (15 t.ha-1) increased the plant height by 15.8 and 11.8 percent, respectively, compared to control. The reason for the increase in plant height due to the use of organic materials is due to the improvement of the chemical and physical properties of the soil, the increase in the storage capacity of nutrients, and the preparation of the ground bed for better root growth in the soil. The maximum dry-weight plant was obtained in the treatment of municipal waste compost (15 t.ha-1) and orange waste compost (15 t.ha-1). The nitrogen present in organic fertilizers enhances vegetative growth, and the high potassium in these fertilizers, in addition to accelerating cell division and directly affecting vegetative growth due to its role in the production of carbohydrates and proteins and the concentration of cell sap, increases the dry weight of the plant. The highest seed yield was observed at the level of 15 tons per hectare of municipal waste compost, with a 60.2% increase compared to the control, and at the level of 15 tons per hectare of orange waste compost, with an increase of 37.4% compared to the zero level. Also, the simple effect of municipal waste compost and orange waste and the interaction of two treatments on grain weight per plant, 1000-seed weight, biological yield, and harvest index were significant. The highest seed weight per plant was obtained from the highest levels of municipal waste compost and orange waste (15 t.ha-1 + 15 t.ha-1). The highest 1000-seed weight and biological yield were observed in the treatment of municipal waste compost (15 t.ha-1) and orange waste compost (15 t.ha-1). Also, the highest harvest index was related to the treatment of municipal waste compost (15 t.ha-1) and orange waste compost (7.5 t.ha-1). Probably, the availability of more nutrients for the plant has led to an increase in the production of photosynthetic materials for the seeds and, as a result, an increase in their weight.

The results of this study showed that municipal waste compost and orange waste compost had a significant effect on the yield and growth characteristics of common millet. Thus, results showed that municipal waste compost (15 t.ha-1) and orange waste compost (15 t.ha-1) had a strong impact on the yield and growth characteristics of common millet under field conditions.

Oilseeds are very important as the raw material for the production of vegetable oil (one of the basic needs of the society in the food field). Therefore, achieving any success in increasing the amount of production and supplying as many of these products as possible to meet the domestic needs of the country is considered a valuable and great success. Safflower, with the scientific name Carthamus tinctorius L., is an annual long-day plant from the chicory family. Wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis L.), which is also called Brassica kaber in some literatures, is one of the most important weeds belonging to the Brassicaceae family. Competition can perhaps be considered the most important biological interference factor effective in determining crops productivity.Effective management of weeds in agricultural systems is very decisive. Extensive and repeated use of herbicides has led to the emergence of resistant weed biotypes, which has often increased the cost of control. It has also caused some concerns about the negative environmental effects of herbicides. When the competition is for light, the competitive ability of the species is first determined by the morphological traits. The response of crop height to weed competition is related to the density and intensity of competition and the type of weeds and can be positive or negative.

An split plots experiment based on randomized complete block design with three replication was carried out in the Research Farm of University of Birjand during the 2018-2019 cropping year. The treatments include four level of phosphorus fertilizer (0, 25, 50 and 75 kg P 2O5 ha-1) as the main plot and the four wild mustard densities (0, 7, 14 and 28 pl m-2) as subplots. Plant growth characteristics were measured from 150 to 210 days after planting (DAP) in five stages at 15-day intervals. Also, at the harvest maturity, the yield and yield components of the crop were determined.

According to the results, the highest (35.48 g m-2) and lowest (28.23 g m-2) safflower leaf dry weights were obtained from control (no-mustard) and 28 pl m-2 mustard densities at 165 DAP, respectively. The highest (1.67) and lowest (1.19) leaf area index of safflower were achieved at 210 DAP using 25 and 50 kg P 2O5 ha-1, respectively. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the most effective level of phosphorus on the improvement of safflower growth traits (e.g. leaf area and dry weight and stem dry weight) and its competitive ability was 25 kg P2O5 ha-1, although the its effects were not significant for many traits, and as phosphorus levels increased, the competition shifted more in favor of wild mustard. In accordance with these results, and probably due to luxury consumption by weeds, it has been observed that when weed density is high, adding fertilizer leads to superiority of weed growth over crop (Blackshaw et al., 2008). Also, the highest leaf area index of mustard (0.63) was obtained at a density of 56 mustard pl m-2 at 165 DAP and the lowest one of (0.26) was observed at a density of 14 pl m-2 at the same time. It was also observed that the height and leaf area index of wild mustard were the highest in all measuring stages at higher weed densities, indicating the competitiveness of the weed. The increase in weed density had a negative impact on the safflower, although insignificant in many cases, which could be the result of the competitive effect of mustard for resources such as radiation and nutrients (Wright et al., 1999).

In general, the increase in weed density had a positive effect on the yield and its components in wild mustard and a negative effect on the safflower, and under these condition, the application of more than 25 kg P2O5 ha-1 does not have a positive effect on the crop. Thus, it seems that the revision in weed management and the use of fertilizer as an agronomic strategy can be effective in reducing the crop losses caused by the presence of high densities of weeds (Clements et al., 2014).

Increasing the yield of agricultural products per unit area is very important for preparing the food needed by the growing population of the country. One of the solutions is to add fertilizers in different forms and compositions to the soil to increase crop yield and strengthen soil fertility. Far away has been common all over the world.

In order to investigate the effect of different levels of camel manure and manganese sulfate on growth and yield and yield components of Setaria italic, a factorial experiment in the form of a randomized complete block design with three replications in 2009-2010 in Abuzar well cultivated lands. Khosf city was implemented. Experimental treatments included: camel manure at three levels (0, 10 and 20 t / ha) and manganese sulfate at four levels (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg/ha).

The results of statistical analysis of the data showed that different levels of manure and manganese sulfate and the interaction between them had a significant effect on biological yield, number of grains per panicle and grain yield. So that the highest values ​​of the above indices were observed in the treatment of manure 20 tons per hectare and 90 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate. The highest and lowest number of panicles were obtained in the treatment of 20 tons of camel manure and the application of 30 kg/ha of manganese sulfate and the control treatment without the use of camel manganese and manganese sulfate. The length of the panicle was also affected by the main effects of manure and manganese sulfate. So that the maximum panicle length was obtained in the treatment of 20 tons per hectare of manure and the treatment of 90 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate. The effect of manure levels on number of tillers per plant, number of spikes per plant and number of plants per square meter was significant, but other effects had no significant effect on these traits and the highest number of tillers per plant, number of spikes per plant and number of plants In the treatment of 20 tons per hectare of camel manure were obtained per square meter. The main effects of different levels of manure and manganese sulfate at the level of one percent probability had a significant effect on 1000-grain weight and millet harvest index, but the interaction of these factors did not have a significant effect on these traits. The highest 1000-seed weight was observed in the treatment of 20 tons per hectare of camel manure and the treatment of 90 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate. Also, the highest harvest index was related to the treatment of 20 tons per hectare of camel manure and also the highest harvest index was obtained from the consumption of 60 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate.

Finally, it can be concluded that the best treatments in this experiment were the use of 20 tons per hectare of camel manure and 90 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate. In fact, manure improves plant growth by gradually providing elements and using micronutrients. The use of manure is one of the appropriate solutions to achieve ecological agriculture that can increase agricultural production and due to the fact that most of the soils of South Khorasan province are calcareous and manganese deficient, the use of this element can be Help to remove this limitation and increase plant yield.

Today in many parts of the world and specially in Iran, water and soil salinity is one of the environmental stress and a serious risk to plant growth and crop production. One way to modify the salinity of irrigation water for agriculture, identification and application of different types of algae. The aim of this experiment was to investigate the effect of two types of algae on the growth characteristics of wheat and basil under salinity stress.

This research was carried out as factorial in two phases of laboratory (in the form of a completely randomized design) and greenhouse (in the form of a randomized complete block design) in the Faculty of Agriculture of University of Birjand located in Amirabad campus in 2015. The first factor is salinity with four levels (1250, 2500, 5000 and 10000 μs cm-1 in both laboratory and greenhouse sections and the second factor is the application of algae with 3 levels (green-blue microalgae Spirulina platensis (for saline water)), single-celled algae Chlorella vulgaris (for fresh water) and control no use of algae. Algae were grown separately in water salinity treatments described above in 50 × 50 cm aquariums in the laboratory. The soil was well mixed with a small volume of saline solution as required and water added to maintain soil moisture at 0.18 cm3 cm–3 (35% water-holding capacity), and then soil was incubated for 1 weeks for subsequent use in the pot experiment.

In the part of laboratory experiment, the results of analysis of variance showed that there was a significant difference between different levels of salinity stress and algae type on dry weight of plumule and rootlet in wheat and basil, but there was no statistically significant difference between their interactions. The application of algae caused a significant increase in the dry weight of plumule and rootlet wheat. The highest dry weight was obtained in the application of Chlorella algae (0.0125 and 0.0008 g pl-1 per plumule and rootlet, respectively). However, both of algae reduced significantly the dry weight of plumule and rootlet of basil. In pot experiment, the results of variance analysis showed that algae type (P <0.05) and different levels of water salinity (P <0.01) had a significant effect on wheat plant height and for basil just were significant different salinity levels (P <0.01) but their interaction had no significant effect on the trait. The use of algae increased significantly the wheat height (algae Chlorella 9.34% and the use of algae spirulina 6.56%). The interaction effect of algae type and salinity levels (P <0.01) were significant in wheat dry weight but for basil dry weight the simple effect was significant. Results indicated that the interaction of algae type and salinity stress had a significant effect on electrolyte leakage of wheat and basil.

Therefore, it can be concluded that the type of algae had a different effect on the two types of plants, so that for wheat plant chlorella algae and for basil plant type of spirulina algae had more effect on traits and moderated the effects of salinity stress.

Moisture stress is one of the most important limiting factors which can affect crop production in semi-arid regions. Proper management and application of advanced techniques to maintain soil moisture and improve soil moisture holding capacity in the soil are effective in increasing water use efficiency and improving water resource utilization. Due to the importance of chickpea as a source of protein and the irreparable damage of moisture stress to yield of chickpea, the selection of methods that can increase the tolerance of the plant to moisture stress is very important. Recently, the use of superabsorbent has increased due to the ability to absorb and maintain water and consequently increase water use efficiency in the soil. Diatomite, as a superabsorbent, is a unique natural material with interesting features including very fine structure, low mass density, high porosity, high specific surface, chemical neutrality and high silica content. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the proper amount of diatomite to obtain maximum chickpea yield under moisture stress conditions. 

In order to investigate the effect of diatomite on yield and yield component of chickpea under different irrigation regimes, an experiment was conducted in Khaf in the year 1396-1397. This research was conducted as split plot based on randomized complete block design with three replications. The main factor of irrigation regimes was five levels (dry farming, full irrigation, one irrigation in vegetative stage, one irrigation in reproductive stage, two irrigations: one vegetative stage and one reproductive stage) and factor the subdivisions of diatomite were in three levels (0, 3.5 t/ha and 7 t/ha). Each plot has 6 cultivating lines 30 cm long and 3 meters long. In this experiment, diatomite was placed at a depth of 20 cm (maximum root zone density) under seed. The cultivation was carried out manually on the fifth of March with a density of 45 plants per square meter and a depth of 5 cm. In flowering after full yellowing of chickpea pods, number of pods, number of seed in pod, 100 seed weight, percentage of pod unfilled, seed yield and biological yield were measured. Harvest was calculated by dividing the seed yield into biological yield and multiplying it by 100.

 The results showed that changing the irrigation regime from full irrigation to dry farming caused a decrease in the quantitative traits studied. The lowest seed yield (318.54 kg/ha) and biological yield (725.44 kg/ha) were obtained in dry farming treatment. Application of diatomite under different irrigation regimes increased all evaluated traits and seed yield. The highest seed yield (1745.67 kg/ha) was obtained in irrigation treatment in vegetative and reproductive stages and consumption of 7 ton/ha of diatomite and the lowest amount (363.97 kg/ha) was recorded in dry farming without diatomite application. Also, application of 7 ton/ha of diatomite compared to non-application of diatomite increased by 29, 29, 77 and 39% in irrigation regimes including dry farming, one irrigation in vegetative stage, one irrigation in reproductive stage, two irrigations including stage, respectively. Vegetative and reproductive were in the trait of seed yield. Based on the results of interaction effects in irrigation treatment in vegetative and reproductive stage and other low irrigation treatments including irrigation in vegetative stage, irrigation in reproductive stage and dry farming application of 3.5 ton/ha diatomite with application of 7 ton/ha of diatomite in all studied traits in a statistical group it placed; Therefore, it can be said that the use of 3.5 ton/ha diatomite is the most appropriate amount in increasing the yield of chickpeas under low irrigation regimes. 

Generally, the results showed that the amount of irrigation water had a significant effect on yield and yield components of chickpea, thus reducing irrigation water in the treatments of two irrigations: one vegetative stage and one reproductive stage, one irrigation in reproductive stage, one irrigation in vegetative stage and dry farming in compared to the full irrigation treatment, it reduce 37, 63, 81 and 86% in seed yield, respectively, and this decreasing trend in other measured traits was observed. At the same time, reducing the amount of irrigation water increased the percentage of pod unfilled. However, the negative effects of reduced irrigation water can be reduced by using diatomite. The result showed that the application of 3.5 ton/ha diatomite at different irrigation levels in all measured traits didn't differ significantly from the application of 7 ton/ha of diatomite. Based on this, it can be said that the application of 3.5 ton/ha is the optimal amount. In general, using advanced methods such as using diatomite as a super absorbent while saving the cost of crop production in dry areas, by maintaining and storing moisture in the soil and improving water permeability in the soil can be an effective step in order to exploit limited water resources and increase seed yield.

Many arid and semi-arid agricultural areas are facing with shortages of water and nutrients, especially micronutrients. Drought stress is one of the most important environmental stresses that seriously damage the growth and development of crops, limits the production and productivity of plants more than any other environmental factor. The use of micronutrients can partially alleviate the negative effects of this environmental stress on the growth and production of crops. Iron micronutrient plays an essential role in some biological and physiological processes such as respiration, photosynthesis and chlorophyll biosynthesis and is also effective in diastases as well as in chlorophyll production. According to the above, the main purpose of this experiment was to investigate the growth response of Roshan cultivar to applying iron sulfate fertilizer in different moisture conditions and to investigate changes in the content of some plant elements under these conditions.

In order to evaluate the growth and uptake of iron and other nutrients by wheat, cv. Roshan, a two-factor factorial experiment was conducted in 2012 in the Research Greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand. The first factor was consisted of four different levels of ferrous sulfate (0, 50, 100 and 150 mg.kg-1 soil) and the second factor included two soil moisture treatments including 50 and 100% soil field capacity. After preparing the pots and applying experimental treatments, the seeds were planted and after emergence, the plant density was set to 10 plants in the pot. Moisture levels were applied from the beginning of experiments and watering the pots was done daily based on the weight of the pots and taking into account 20% drainage of soil moisture (in each irrigation treatment). Sampling was done after 8 weeks (early stem elongation stage) and at this time some morphological traits (number of leaves, leaf area, number of tillers and plant height) and the SPAD index and relative water content of leaves were measured. The iron, potassium, nitrogen and protein contents of the plants were also determined for each pot separately. Analysis of variance was performed using SAS software and mean comparison was performed using FLSD test at a significant level of 5%.

As soil moisture decreased from 100 to 50% of field capacity, plant height (5.8%), number of stems (37%), number of leaves (22%), stem diameter (15.8%), leaf area (33%), relative leaf water content (16.8%) and SPAD index (5.45%) decreased. The results also showed that in the control treatment (without iron fertilizer), the highest amount of SPAD index (38.8) was obtained, which with an increase of ferrus sulfate to 150 mg.kg-1 of soil, it decreased by 5.8%. Also, with the increase in soil water content to 100% of field capacity, the percentage of protein, nitrogen and potassium of wheat plants decreased by 9.2, 17.18 and 23.7%, respectively, compared to 50% of field capacity. The iron content of leaf in 100% of the field capacity was equal to 142.7 mg.kg-1 dry matter, which decreased by 27% by reducing the soil water content to 50% of the field capacity. Increasing the iron fertilizer from zero to 50, 100 and 150 mg.kg-1 soil caused the leaf nitrogen percentage to increase by 5, 9.5 and 7.2%, respectively. Leaf iron content in these levels of iron fertilizer was 35.8, 97.8 and 57.8% higher than the non-use of iron sulfate, respectively. Finally, biomass production was reduced by 31% compared to 100% of field capacity and finally water use efficiency was not affected by any of the experimental treatments. Finally, the watering at 50% of field capacity decreased the biomass production by 31%, compared to the 100% field capacity, and the water use efficiency was not affected by any treatments.

In general, the results of this experiment showed that with decreasing soil moisture level, a decrease occurs in the amount of plant dry matter. Increasing the level of ferrous sulfate only led to an increase in the leaf nitrogen and also a 100% increase in the iron content of the leaves, which in turn can play a role in improving drought resistance.

Oil seeds had an important role in supplying food, heat and pharmaceutical needs. Today oil seeds are considered as the strategic agricultural products in the world.  Providing of essential elements for crops, especially micro-nutrients play an important role in increasing the quality of produced food and improving community health. Sulfur is one of the essential elements required for plants, which has been underestimated in recent years. In oil seeds, sulfur plays an important role in seeds quality and growth. These plants usually need more sulfur for suitable growth and higher yield. Synthesis of some essential proteins and vitamins in crops has been faced difficulty due to sulfur deficiency. The addition of organic matter with sulfur in soils with high acidity is an appropriate option for reducing acidity and dissolving the required elements of crops.

The limiting factors in crop production are high soil pH and its effect on availability of nutrients and also organic matter shortages. This research was conducted at Kerman Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center to determine the effect of sulfur and cattle manure on quantitative and qualitative characteristics of sesame varieties (Sesamum indicum L.) in a factorial experiment with completely randomized block design with 3 replications in 2016. The treatments consisted of powdered sulfur at four levels (0, 2, 4 and 8 t.ha-1), Cow manure at two levels (0 and 20 t.ha-1) and included two Jiroft-13 and Jiroft local varieties. After soil preparation the cultivars were planted on the rows with 50 cm distance. Grain yield, Harvest index, Oil and Protein Content, phosphorus and leaf sulfur content of sesame varieties were measured at the end of the growing season.

The results indicated that the highest level of sulfur (8 t.ha-1) except for harvest index caused a significant increase in the investigated traits compared to the control treatment. The interactions of Cattle manure and sulfur were significant on some traits and the highest grain yield belonged to the Jiroft-13 cultivar in the highest level of sulfur and Cattle manure. The Jiroft-13 cultivar had the highest grain oil and protein content and harvest index as compared to Jiroft local variety. Effects of sulfur and Cattle manure treatments on grain oil and protein were significant and the highest amount was observed in combined application of sulfur and manure. Application of sulfur increased the concentration of this element in sesame leaves and also due to local reduction of soil acidity, it had a significant effect on increasing phosphorus uptake. The results indicate that the integrated use of sulfur and cattle manure as an ecological solution in order to increase growth and quantitative and qualitative production of oil crops, especially in alkaline soils could be considered.

In general, the results of this study indicate that sulfur application had a significant effect on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of sesame varieties and soil improvement. Application of cattle manure improved physical and chemical properties of soil, resulted yield increase and provided the sulfur oxidation conditions. In alkaline soils, animal fertilizers can be used to release phosphorus and fixed micronutrients. Considering the positive effect of sulfur on soil pH reduction and increasing accessibility to phosphorus and micronutrients, consumption of this substance with animal fertilizers, will make each one more effective. Large amounts of sulfur are produced in the country's oil and gas industries which can play an important role in increasing the quality of oilseed crops. According to the experimental conditions and the obtained results in the absence of cow manure, using 8 t.ha-1 of sulfur is recommended. However, under application of 20 t.ha-1 of cow manure, while using lower levels of sulfur, favorable results can be obtained.  Jiroft-13 had a higher yield than local variety and is recommended for Kerman climatic conditions.

Nutrients availability near to plant root and the improvement of soil physical condition with the correct use of sufficient amount of animal manure can improve saffron yield. Investigating the Effect of Animal Fertilizer on availability of Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), and Iron (Fe) in Farms Soil of Saffron. This study was carried out in nursery unit of Agriculture Faculty, University of Birjand in a randomized complete block design with four replications in 25 kg soil pots in 2014. Treatments of manure including 0 (as control), 40 and 80 ton/ha, combined use of 40 ton/ha of manure + 100% chemical fertilizer and 80 ton/ha manure + 100% chemical fertilizer (soil test), application only chemical fertilizer without manure and application of the same above treatments in unplanted soil with similar conditions. Soil samples were taken after flowering in second year and nutrients determind in laboratory. The results showed that the simple effects of manure and chemical fertilizers were significant on available phosphorus and potassium in planted soil saffron and the highest amount of available phosphorus and potassium (respectively, 9.62 and 763.7 mg / kg soil) ) was obtained from 80 ton/ha of manure. The results also showed a significant effect of the interaction of chemical and animal fertilizers on the Fe concentration in the planted soil of saffron. Therefore, Increasing of P and K concentration and decreasing of Fe concentration in planted soil of saffron indicates the root activity of saffron, which can play an effective role in the availability of nutrients.

In order to study the effects of some fertilizer sources and mother corm weights on qualitative and quantitative traits of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), a factorial pot experiment based on a randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted at College of Agriculture, University of Birjand during 2014 and 2015. Experimental factors consisted of different fertilizers [Bioaminopalis (3 l.ha-1), humic acid (4 l.ha-1), Yaramila complex (50 kg.ha-1) and control (without fertilizer)] and three mother corm weights included 4-6, 7-9 and 10-12 g. The results showed that the simple effects of different fertilizers were significant (p≤0.01) on leaf number (No.plant-1), fresh weight of leaf (g), leaf dry weight (g), number of daughter corms (No.plant-1), fresh weight of mother corms (g) and Picrocrocin, Safranal and Crocin contents of saffron. The simple effect of corm weight was significant (p≤0.01) on leaf number (No.plant-1), leaf length (cm), fresh weight of leaf (g), leaf dry weight (g), number of daughter corms (No.plant-1), fresh weight of daughter corms (g), daughter corms weight (g), diameter of mother corm (cm), fresh weight of mother corms (g), dry weight of mother corms (g), fresh weight of tunic (g), dry weight of tunic (g). Qualitative and quantitative traits of saffron were not affected by the simple effect of corm weight and fertilizer treatments. Also, the greatest leaf number (No.plant-1), fresh weight and dry weight of leaf (g) and number of daughter corms (No.plant-1) were observed where humic acid was applied with mother corms weighing 10-12 g. But the highest levels of Picrocrocin, Crocin and Safranal were obtained in Bioaminopalis application with 87.41, 250, 32.48 respectively. Therefore application of bio-fertilizers and reducing fertilizer use is an important step towards achieving the principles of sustainable agriculture and reduction of environmental pollution and improvement of saffron quality characteristics.

Improving the resource use efficiency in agro- ecosystems is an important factor for reducing environmental pollution. To evaluate phosphorus (P) efficiency and balance indicators, research was conducted in wheat and saffron production systems in the Qaenat region (South Khorasan Province, Iran) during 2011 and 2012, based on the method of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The required information about wheat and saffron cultivation was collected via questionnaires and the required coefficients were obtained from various literatures. The results showed that the phosphorus efficiency and balance indicators were significantly different between distinct districts only in the case of wheat crops. The highest P efficiencies of wheat and saffron farms were 7.21% and 2.93%, respectively. Additionally, P efficiency and balance indicators showed a significant difference between both crops in some districts, so that wheat had higher P efficiency than saffron, which was mainly because of the different amounts of animal manure applied to these crops. There was no significant difference between the different ages of saffron farms for P efficiency and balance. Furthermore, there was a significant negative correlation between P efficiency and balance indicators. It would appear that there are many opportunities for improving the efficiency of P and to prevent environmental pollution through the optimization of management decisions.

Commercialization of agricultural operations and use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers in agricultural production has been created serious environmental impacts. Due to this issue and in order to assess the amount of chemical fertilizer and pesticide inputs in saffron and wheat production systems, a study was conducted in Qaenat region (South Khorasan province), 50 wheat fields and 48 saffron fields were investigated during 2011-12. The results showed that average nitrogen fertilizer consumption was 222.38 and 57.83 kg.ha-1 in wheat and saffron production systems, respectively, which from sstatistically point of view the difference was significant. In addition, unlike wheat, the use of pesticides very low in saffron cultivation and in many saffron farms it was zero. Therefore, the results can be considered saffron is an healthier product and have greater potential to organic product. Also, the amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers which were using in wheat in the study area were significantly different with recommended values. While in saffron production there was no significant difference between the values of consumed and recommended. Therefore, it seems, performing soil testing in each region and providing appropriate fertilizer formulas and required promotional-educational services in this regard, and raising public awareness is a good strategy for reducing the use of chemical inputs.

In recent decades، Phytoremediation is one of the methods which has been a lot of attention. In this process by using of green plants can be removing or eliminate pollutants from water، soil and sediments. Therefore، to achievement the objective، this experiment was done in pot culture using completely randomized design with different levels of Cadmium concentrations (CdCl2. H2O) including 0، 5، 50، 100 mg kg-1 and also chromium concentrations (CrCl3): 0، 50، 100، 150 mg kg-1 with three replications. Spinacia Oleracea was used to remove or reduce the concentration of Cadmium and Chromium. Metals were determined by acid digestion method and atomic absorption set. Results were analyzed with SPSS (version 16) and Macro software. Tables and graphs were traced with Excel software. Results indicated that Cadmium and Chromium concentration in shoot significantly affected by their concentration in soil (P<0. 01). Cd shoot concentration in Spinacia oleracea was increased by increasing of Cd in soil. Also، results showed that Cd and Cr root concentration was more than shoot. Therefore، according to the results، Spinacia oleracea is appropriate for absorption of Cadmium and Chromium in phytoremediation technology.

In order to have a sustainable agriculture it is necessary to use environmental friendly inputs to improve ecological aspects of environment. Basil is a medicinal and vegetable crop which is cultivated in different parts of the world. Accordingly, a greenhouse experiment was conducted in Agriculture Faculty of Birjand University as a completely randomized design based on factorial arrangement in four replicates in 2011. In order to study the effect of biological and chemical fertilizers on plant of basil plant an experiment was conducted in the greenhouse of Agriculture Faculty, Birjand University in 2011.It was based on factorial experiment in randomized complete design with 15 treatments and 4 replications. The first factor was three levels of biological fertilizer, including:control (M0= no inoculation) biological compound fertilizer No.1 (M1 =Pseudomonas41+ Azospirillum+ Azotobacter) and the biological fertilizer composed of No.2 (M2= Pseudomonas187+ Azospirillum+ Azotobacter). The second factor was chemical fertilizer including Nitrogen [N0=0, N1=45, N2=90, N3=135, N4=180 mg.kg-1], Potassium [P0=0, P1=20, P2=40, P3=60, P4=80 mg.kg-1] and Phosphorus [P0=0, P1=20, P2=40, P3=60, P4=80 mg.kg-1], including 5 levels: Contorl, N1P1K1, N2P2K2, N3P3K3, N4P4K4.quantity indicators including (height, fresh leaf weight per plant, dry stem weight per plant,) and quality indices including (N, P and K concentrations). The results of analysis of variance showed the main effects of biological and chemical fertilizers (NPK) on the characteristics was significant (P<0.01). Interaction of biological and chemical fertilizers on the, fresh leaf weight per plant and nitrogen amount in basil leave was significant (P<0.05). There was positive and synergistic interaction between PGPR inoculation and chemical fertilizers on N concentration as the highest and lowest N concentration percentage in herb were obtained in treatments of P41AA+N3P3K3 (3.31) and Contorl (2.39), respectively. The highest concentrations of P and K in leaf were obtained with application of N3P3K3.It is concluded thatapplication of biofertilizers enhanced quantitative and qualitative characteristics in this plant.Generally, it seems that using of biofertilizers could improve basil performance inaddition toreduction of environmental pollution.