vida amanjahani

Drought is one of the natural hazards whose consequences and effects on social, economic, water resources and agriculture can be significantly revealed. Although the occurrence of drought is inevitable, it can be planned by anticipating a reduction in its devastating effects on the economy, society and the environment. The purpose of this study was to explain the types of drought indicators and introducing the important and widely used indicators in assessing and quantifying meteorological and hydrological droughts. Meteorological drought is usually defined by the degree of dryness (compared to the normal or average value) and the duration of the dry period. Meteorological drought definitions should be considered separately for each specific region; Because the weather conditions that lead to deficit of rainfall vary from one region to another. Drought, in its meteorological sense, means a decrease in rainfall for a certain period of time on a specific area compared to the long-term average of the same area's rainfall in the same period of time.

While introducing the benefits, limitations and scope of different drought classes, the relationships used by droughts are presented. Standardized precipitation indices (SPI), percentage of normal rainfall index (PNPI), rainfall anomaly index (RAI), Bhalme and Mooly drought index (BMDI), decile index (DI), evapotranspiration deficit index (ETDI), Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI), reclamation drought index (RDI) and Soil Moisture Drought Index (SMDI) were introduced in the category of meteorological drought. In the category of hydrological drought, surface water supply indices (SWSI) were also examined.

Various drought indicators along with variables, time scales and their concepts are presented in the results section. The results showed that the SPI index has a high comparative advantage for monitoring meteorological drought. Also, RDI index is more sensitive to climatic variables than SPI index and PNPI index is not recommended for drought assessment due to high error. The standard precipitation index (SPI) is known as the most suitable index for drought analysis, especially spatial analysis, due to the simplicity of calculations, the use of available rainfall data, the ability to calculate for any desired time scale, and the very high ability to compare results spatially. Due to its simplicity and practicality, Rainfall Anomaly Index (RAI) has been often used in drought estimation to deal with drought in different stages for different climatic regions. The time scale for calculating this index is monthly and yearly. The calculation method of BMDI drought index is similar to Palmer's drought severity index and the index works recursively; That is, in calculating the drought intensity of a given month, a coefficient of the previous month's drought intensity is also considered. The DI index is defined as a rating of the amount of precipitation in a specific period of time and is presented in order to solve the deficiencies in the percentage of normal method. The Decimal Index provides a statistically accurate measure of precipitation, provided long-term climate data are available. The need for low input variables, including all components of water balance in index calculations, and comparability in different times and places are considered strengths of the PDSI index. This index is able to monitor drought in short-term and long-term periods (one to 48 months). This index is increasing due to the need for low data, high sensitivity and high flexibility of its use; Due to the fact that the RDI index is calculated based on rainfall and potential evaporation and transpiration, it is more sensitive to climate variables and changes than drought indicators that are based only on rainfall (such as the standardized precipitation index). The purpose of the SWSI index is to obtain a standard for determining the amount of water available in mountainous areas and the possibility of comparing different areas with each other. The SWSI index determines the severity of ongoing droughts in the region and the future situation can be predicted with the help of this index. SMDI drought index is an index that is based on the total soil moisture daily for one year and the only climatic factor used in it is soil moisture data.

A major part of Iran is located in dry and semi-arid areas, and the drought phenomenon is an inseparable part and is considered one of the characteristics of dry and semi-arid areas. Based on this, a two- to three-year drought period is experienced in the country almost every five years. These droughts have reduced surface and underground water sources and reduced usable water. The occurrence of drought and its continuation also affects the quantity and quality of ground water resources. The reduction of precipitation, which is one of the most important parameters of feeding the underground water aquifers, can cause the destruction and loss of the ground water aquifers. There are different drought indicators, each of which has advantages and disadvantages. Meanwhile, the Comprehensive Drought Index (RDI) is more sensitive to climate variables and changes compared to the SPI index. In this regard, it can be said that the RDI index is calculated based on rainfall and potential evaporation and transpiration, but the SPI index is only calculated based on rainfall. RAI index has the ability to evaluate drought in short-term and long-term time periods (one to 48 months). Overall, a review of the indicators provided can help determine the appropriate indicator to assess drought. An appropriate indicator to provide information on drought management challenges. In addition, it quantifies the practical aspects of drought, such as the severity, duration, and frequency of drought, along with possible, and statistical characteristics. Among the studied indices, the PNPI index is not recommended for drought evaluation due to its high error; Also, the DI index is not suitable for areas having stations with a short-term data period because it requires long-term data to evaluate drought. The PDSI index is calculated from the data of precipitation, temperature and soil moisture and considers any type of precipitation as precipitation. In PDSI index, the average precipitation is not the same as the median, which is one of the disadvantages of this index.

Today, watersheds are severely affected by natural and man-made stresses, and their ability to recover and adapt to altered conditions depends on the resilience of watersheds. Therefore, due to the importance of this issue and the necessity to explain  management models in  order to promote resilience in the country's watersheds, the present paper aims to analyze the concept, application, and methods of hydrological resilience assessment as one of the resilience dimensions in comprehensive watershed management. Studies in this field are very limited worldwide but have an upward trend. Accordingly, the methods used to evaluate hydrological resilience have so far been limited to the use of simple compilation methods such as determining the arithmetic mean of some important hydrological indicators, using the Budyko curve and the Convex model. Budyko's curve analysis was mostly based on rainfall, evapotranspiration, and runoff production. But the convex model is used by considering the failure thresholds of hydrological indicators and establishing a relation between the process of long-term changes and the failure thresholds of indicators. The indicators used are multitude and have different applications depending on the hydrological conditions of each watershed. Among the most important of them can be the ratio of drought index to runoff, temporal trend and frequency of low and high water flow, change in annual water yield, groundwater level, surface runoff intensity, river enrichment from nutrients, and heavy metals, forest degradation percentage, soil erosion, sediment yield, and saline water levels are all the result of the interaction of other influential environmental factors, such as climatic, ecological, economic, biophysical and social.

Over the past few months, the COVID-19 epidemic has had significant impacts on the environment, natural resources, economy, and food security, so, it requires a comprehensive assessment. In this regard, the present study reviews the effects of COVID-19 on various aspects of the environment, natural resources and agriculture through reviewing studies conducted since the outbreak of this epidemic. First, all the studies performed on the target aspects were collected, then categorized and analyzed. To date, the infection of this disease has infected millions and killed thousands of people. More than 80 countries have closed their boundaries, forced people to quarantine, and closed the businesses, and about 1.5 billion schools. Increased human infections and deaths, consumption of water, electricity, gas, materials of food, healthiness, and medicine, billions of dollars in economic losses and challenges related to household and medical waste disposal, reduced environmental diplomacy, reduced accuracy of air forecasting and infection of wildlife are some of the negative consequences for the viral disease of COVID-19. However, positive effects such as reducing the pressure on natural resources, reducing air pollution and climate change, and a deeper understanding of the ecosystems and the environment reserves were also observed. Despite the existence of few health and environmental protocols, it is necessary to develop more comprehensive guidelines on the environment and ecology contexts on the agenda of the organizations in charge of this issue in order to be more resilient against this disease.