روسیه

The rule of Javad Khan (1218-1200 AH/1786-1804 AD), the last member of the Ziyad Oghlu Qajar ruling family in Ganja, coincided with the beginning of the Russian conquest of Georgia and the tsar's colonial policies in the Caucasus. Ganja, which has been in competition with Georgian rulers since ancient times due to the neighboring status of Georgia, was one of the first Muslim-populated regions of the Caucasus, which fell victim to the expansionist policy of the Russians. The explanation of the political challenges and actions of the ruler of Ganja in the face of the rulers of Georgia and the colonial policy of Tsarist Russia in the Caucasus region is one of the issues of this research. The present article deals with the question of what approach Javad Khan took to the actions of the rulers of Georgia and the colonial policy of the Russians. This research aims to examine Javad Khan's policies from two perspectives of interaction and confrontation with a descriptive-analytical approach and with references to Russian, Qajar and local history of the Caucasus documentary sources. The findings of the research show that Javad Khan tried to maintain his rule by adopting a policy of interaction with the Russians due to the weakness of his internal power and the lack of a powerful supporter in Iran. However, with the overthrow of the Georgian rulers by the Russians and the subsequent territorial claim to Ganja, the policy of military confrontation in relations with the Russians was pursued.

Islamic unity was one of the lofty ideals that created a movement in the Islamic world in the last quarter of the 19th century and the first quarter of the 20th century and shone a light of hope in the hearts of a number of Muslim thinkers and intellectuals. Meanwhile, the Muslims of the South Caucasus, who were under the rule of Tsarist Russia and in danger of cultural transformation, also turned to Islamic unity, because they saw salvation in it. One of the pioneers of this movement in the Caucasus was Ali Bey Hosseinzadeh. Hosseinzadeh, with the experiences he had gained during his stay in St. Petersburg and inspired by “Pan-Slavism,” sought to use Islamic unity to unite the Muslims of the world, or at least the Muslims of Russia. The present study aims to examine the works of Ali Bey Hosseinzadeh and shed light on his role in the expansion and growth of the idea of ​​Pan-Islamism among the Muslims of Russia, especially the South Caucasus. The research findings indicate that although the unity of Islam envisioned by Hosseinzadeh was not realized, his efforts were effective in continuing the social and political life of the Muslims of the Caucasus and in bringing them closer to their Muslim brothers in Iran and the Ottoman Empire. Keywords: Pan-Islamism, South Caucasus, Russia, Iran, Ottoman, Ali Bay Hosseinzadeh

The constitutionalist movement in Iran is one of the most influential movements in the political scene of contemporary Iranian history. This movement put an end to absolute governments in Iran, where the kings were the only decision-makers in the country. In this movement, we witnessed the role of two colonial powers, Russia and England, in Iran, where Russia favored the monarchists and England favored the constitutionalists, and each pursued their own interests in this movement. The main question of the current research is, what benefits or losses did the two countries of Russia and England have in opposing and agreeing with the constitutionalist movement? The hypothesis of the research indicates that the constitutionalism movement was created by the British government and the purpose of this action was to remove the absolute power from the hands of the Qajar kings. In this research, analytical-descriptive method was used using library resources. The results of the research showed that in order to preserve India as its largest colony, England placed Iran as a buffer zone that prevents the domination of Russia, which is a colonial power that is in the neighborhood of Iran. After the Qajar kings turned towards Russia, England felt the danger that due to Russia's influence on Iran, India would be at risk of Russian aggression. For this reason, by using the opportunity obtained in the protests of the Iranian people to form the Justice House, he expresses the plan of constitutionalism to the protestors and besiegers in his embassy, thus diverting the demands towards constitutionalism. After the inauguration of Mohammad Ali Shah, who was fully supported by Russia, the National Council was closed and some of the constitutionalist leaders were executed or imprisoned. England, by supporting the constitutionalists, provided the means for their victory over Muhammad Ali Shah, thus turning the Qajar king into a powerless person.

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, two powerful and nationalist figures came to power in Germany and the Ottoman Empire. Wilhelm II came to power with the slogan of modern politics in Germany and Sultan Abdul Hamid II with the slogan of Islamic unity in the Ottoman Empire. Both personalities wanted economic, military and industrial progress in their empires, which led to cooperation between the two countries in the Berlin-Persian Gulf railway project. On the other hand, at this time, the Persian Gulf suddenly became the arena of conflicts and colonial rivalries of powerful European states, including Germany.The main issue of this research is to study and explain the reasons for the construction of the Berlin-Persian Gulf railway by the Germans and the reasons for their failure in this project. This article has been done using descriptive-analytical method and documented text analysis and using historical sources. The findings of the study indicate that the Germans, after failing in the Persian Gulf by sea, thought of infiltrating the Persian Gulf by land and by rail, but due to the lack of strong allies could not succeed in this project good luck.

The archive of Astan Quds Razavi Central Library hold as picture that illustrates the incident of bombardment of the Holy Shrine of Imam Reza in 1330 AH. This picture is a significant document from various historical and artistic aspects. It has been drawn and published to inform a specific event in a special way. Mirza Taher Mosanne Razavi, an artist and craftsman who held the positions of deputy supervisor of lighting and clock making of the Holy Shrine, portrayed the event in an impressive and detailed way when Russians invaded the Holy Shrine of Imam Reza. Although the historical resources narrate the event with different details, delving into the sources of the event and comparing them with Mirza Taher’s picture, will shed light on the his look at the event and as well as the tricks and elements he used to make it more impressive. This picture is one of the earliest examples that have been produced for artistic informing and propagating against the invading forces that was produced and published in the form of a lithographic monograph. Therefore, this work is a significant document about a historical even, a narrative mixed with artistic impression that is close to the event in terms of the time of the event. Moreover, the picture is significant as it narrates and informs, shows the artist’s view and emphasis on using impressive elements and his use of lithography to raise awareness about a specific event. As the artist was an artist from Mashhad, who served the pilgrims of the Holy Shrine.

The relations between Iran and the Russian government during the Qajar period were always affected by Russia's economic-political colonial goals in Iran. It was in pursuit of these goals that the Russian government developed its economic, political and military influence in the northern regions of Iran, especially Guilan, in various ways during the Qajar period. They took various actions with the aim of dominating Iran's economy. One of the most important and effective measures was the establishment or support of Russian investment companies in Iran. With this description, in this research, the activity of one of the most important Russian companies active in Guilan, namely "Transport Insurance Company", is analyzed and investigated. Based on this, the main question of the research is what was the activity of this company during the Naseri period and what effect did it have on advancing the political-economic goals of the Russian government in Iran? Based on the findings of the research, the Russians, with the aim of penetrating Iran's economy (in order to achieve colonial goals), took various measures such as obtaining concessions, increasing trade with Iran, supporting Russian businessmen who did business with Iran, and such things. Investing in Iran by establishing or expanding the activities of Russian companies to Iran was one of the other actions of Russia. In this regard, various companies, such as transport insurance, were active in the field of trade with Iran. The Russian government supported this company and by buying most of its shares and helping to receive lucrative concessions from the Iranian government, helped to strengthen and continue the activities of this company in Iran. This government also managed to increase its influence and dominance in Iran's economy.

 With the outbreak of the First World War, due to its geopolitical situation and the establishment of Russian forces since 1909/1288 AD, Azerbaijan was unintentionally involved in the conflicts and wars between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Before the war, Ottomans had strengthened their positions against the Russians because Azerbaijan, especially the western corridor of Lake Urmia, was considered a strategic and suitable route Tsarist Russia to reach Mesopotamia and the warm waters of the Persian Gulf. In the spring of 1295 AH, the whole region was gradually occupied by the Russians, and the last attempt of the Ottomans to capture the positions of the Russians in the West of Azerbaijan under the title of Dillman (Salmas) war between Russia and the Ottomans in May 1295 AH led to the defeat of the Ottomans. At the same time as the Dillman War, the Assyrians and Ottoman Armenians revolted in Anatolia. The return of the Ottoman forces to Eastern Anatolia led to the suppression of the Ottoman rebel Armenians. The consequences of this war were mass migration of Ottoman Assyrians to western Azerbaijan, including Urmia and Salmas. This article, written based on Ottoman documents and Iranian sources on a descriptive-analytical basis, tries to answer these questions: what was the cause of this war and the process of the incident, and finally, what were the consequences of this war for Azerbaijan and Eastern Anatolia?  It was concluded that following this war, the western region of Azerbaijan and eastern Anatolia were captured by the joint Russian-Armenian forces. The subsequent events led to various incidents and events for both Muslims and Christians in Azerbaijan and Eastern Anatolia. It is clear that both the Ottoman countries and Tsarist Russia sought to gain more wealth and power in this region without considering the interests of the Iranian people and their partiality with these groups was temporary and based on their short-term and long-term hidden and overt interests.

Iran and Afghanistan, two pivotal nations in West Asia, have consistently attracted the attention of foreign powers, particularly England and Russia, which have sought to exert their influence. This research aimed to examine the policies of England and Russia toward the constitutional movements in Iran and Afghanistan during the early twentieth century. Additionally, it analyzed the behaviors and actions of England and Russia in response to these movements, paying close attention to their relations and conflicts with the constitutional movements. The following sections assessed the consequences of these two powers on the international relations of the region and the world, measuring their role in the contemporary developments of the constitutional periods in Iran and Afghanistan. This paper, utilizing historical sources and documents in Persian, Russian, and English, aimed to provide a new and comprehensive perspective on the policies of major powers in responding to the constitutional movement in Iran and constitutionalist thought in Afghanistan. The research findings revealed that Russia openly and militarily intervened against the constitutional movement in Iran, while England was clandestinely and diplomatically involved against constitutionalist thought in Afghanistan. The study also highlighted the significant role of coordination between these two powers in opposing the constitutional movement. The results of this research contribute to a clearer understanding of contemporary movements for people's freedom.

The second period of the rule of Kalbalikhan (1219-1235 AH/1804-1820 AD), one of the powerful rulers of the Kangarloo Dynasty over Nakhjavan, coincided with the first round of wars between Iran and Russia. At the beginning of these wars, he cooperated with Russian military commanders, however, during the war of Yerevan (1219 AH/1804 AD), he turned to the Qajar government. So the question is raised that “What were the causes of Kalbalikhan's inclination towards the Russians before the war, and then his turning to Iran and continuing to hesitate to cooperate with the Qajar government? “This issue has been investigated based on the collection of manuscripts of the Kangarloo family's correspondences, Qajar historical sources, and Russian documents. The findings shows that Kalbalikhan turned to the Russians to deal with the policy of eliminating and integrating local elites in the structure of the unified government of Iran with the aim of his political survival, which resulted in his dismissal from the Nakhjavan government by Agha Mohammad Khan. In contrast, Fath Ali Shah's tolerant policy, along with the promise of Nakhjavan's rule and the presence of hostages from his family in the Qajar court, led to Kalbalikhan's inclination towards the government of Iran. However, this cooperation continued along with mutual suspicion due to Kalbalikhan's erratic behavior.

This research tried to investigate the initiatives and activities of Rahim Khan Chalabianlou, one of the Khans and heads of tribes in Azerbaijan, in misleading the goals of the constitutional revolution and constitutionalists in Azerbaijan area. Moreover, the study delt with the important issue of the role of Russians in fueling the movements. The research hypothesis is that Russians influenced Rahim Khan’s initiatives and movements to mislead the constitutional revolution and to interference in Azerbaijan region. They sometimes overtly showed their cooperation and sometimes they covertly cooperated. Rahim Khan's initiatives like suppressing the revolution of people of Tabriz and making insecure the Azerbaijan region through attacking the telegraph office and cutting the telegraph wires, robbing the postal packages sent from Europe, attacking Ardabil, and conquering the city paved the way for Russia's interference in Iran’s affairs, especially the northern Iran that they assumed their influence area competing with the British government. The study used a descriptive-analytical method and focused on documents and library resources. The results showed that among the initiatives of Rahim Khan were leading Chalabianlou Tribe in attacking Tabriz in the constitutional period, killing Azerbaijani constitutionalists, and making insecure the trading routes of the region. Alongside the attacks, the tsar Russian government supported covertly Rahim Khan’s initiatives and activities.

Although the first Pahlavi is known for trying to create a new army and national bureaucratic institutions, as historical evidence shows, the structure and protection-security programs of Reza Shah to deal with the intelligence activities of foreign countries and especially England and Russia have not had favorable results. Based on this, the main question of the present article concerns the failure of the first Pahlavi intelligence organization to deal with England and Russia. The results of this study show that while dominating communication infrastructures, extensive and organized use of obvious sources and finally human espionage have been considered as the general strategy of England, the use of diplomatic institutions and people was the main strategy of Russia. Additionally, this document-oriented research shows that the prevalence of customary-cultural compulsions of the Qajar period in the center of modern institutions, the priority of Reza Shah's interests over national goals, and the lack of nationwide rules and laws in new structures, had destroyed the possibility of properly dealing with the intelligence activities of foreign countries.

Atrak River is one of the longest border rivers of Iran, whose source is the heights near Qochan in the north of Khorasan and it travels a path from east to west on the common border of Iran and Russia and recently Turkmenistan. This river has an important place in the political history of the region, a part of it in the Chat area, according to the Akhal Treaty in 1299 AH, became the official and common border of Qajar Iran and the Tsarist Russian Empire and after a few decades after the October Revolution in 1917, it was determined as the border between Iran and the Soviet Union and it was decided that at least 50% of the water of this river will enter the regions of that country. In addition to its border importance, Atrak River has always been of interest in terms of irrigation of agricultural lands and various construction facilities and creation of sources of income. Therefore, giving importance to issues related to water and border rivers such as Atrak in studies of contemporary history plays an important role in determining the behavior of water diplomacy and economic decisions. The present research, using descriptive-analytical method and relying on library and documentary sources, aims to answer the question, what effect did the Atrak River have on the hydropolitical relations of Iran and its neighbors in the direction of stability and reduction of water and border tensions? And what effect did it have on the historical developments of the east of the Caspian Sea, in terms of population and economy? The claim of the research is that due to the changes in the Atrak River bed due to natural causes and human intervention, there have always been problems and tensions in determining the borders of Iran with neighboring lands. Also, the Turkmen-inhabited region on both sides of the river has a desert climate, and the Etrak river basin is one of the water sources of this land, Therefore, the arbitrary withdrawal of water by the countries has caused challenges between the two countries, and to solve this problem, agreements were always signed in different periods, the results of which were the relative interactions of the parties in the last century

Takfir and contemporary takfiri movements are an inseparable part of the deviant interpretation of Islamic teachings, which is influenced by the continuation of internal crises in Islamic countries, inefficient political systems, weak and bankrupt governments, and power vacuum in the region. The Middle East, as well as the intervention of extra-regional powers, has matured and continued to exist in various forms. Nevertheless, Al-Qaeda and Daesh must be considered as two main currents that have become the most important and dangerous Takfiri-terrorist groups with violent, inhumane and irreligious actions with Takfiri-Jihad approach. In the meantime, ISIS, although it is considered the birth of al-Qaeda, but its dominance over parts of Iraq and Syria and the announcement of the establishment of the Islamic Caliphate and the central threat of Iran by ISIS, require a scientific study of the grounds and It shows the reasons for its formation and evolution. Therefore, this article has tried to evaluate the impact of Takfiri movements and especially ISIS on Iran's national security.

The provisions of the Golestan Treaty did not satisfy the Russians nor the Iranian government; Especially because of the ambiguities that existed in the border lines. In this regard, Russians invaded Iran ocassionally, until in 1241 AD. Russian forces captured Gogche. This event, in addition to the terrible news that reached the Russians about the suffering and torture of the Caucasus people, made the start of the second war between Iran and Russia inevitable. Therefore, with the consent of the politicians, the verdict of Jihad was issued by the scholars and the Iranian army under the command of Abbas Mirza started the war. The second period of wars between Iran and Russia started on 22 Dhu Hijjah 1241 and the battles lasted for almost two years until Abbas Mirza welcomed the Russian peace proposal due to the current unfavorable conditions. The place of negotiations was decided by Paskovich Dekhwarqan (Azershahr) and the leaders of the two countries attended there. In the Dehkhwaraghan negotiation assembly, Paskovich made the peace agreement conditional on handing over the states of Yerevan, Nakhchivan, Mako, Talesh and Mughan, as well as the payment of 20 crores Ashrafis from Iran, but the Dehkhwaraghan negotiations failed due to Iran's non-agreement. With the mediation of the British ambassador Macdonald, it was decided to start the peace talks again, this time in Turkmanchai village. At the end of the long negotiations, a compensation amount of 10 crores equivalent to 5 million Tomans was determined, which should be given to the Russians before signing the treaty. Hence, after going through various stages, a part of the reconciliation money arrived and the parties signed the peace treaty between the two countries on the 5th of Sha'ban 1243/21st February 1828 in Turkmanchai village. Moreover, in order to interpret some articles of the Turkmencha Treaty, several other treaties were also added to it.

With the end of the first war between Iran and Russia (1228-1219 AH/1819-1804 AD), which led to the Golestan Treaty and many parts of the Caucasus were handed over to the tsarist government, Iranian statesmen expected to be able to negotiate through diplomacy and a direct request from Tsar Alexander I. (1801-1825 AD) to take back some of the lost areas. This request was followed by Abul Hasan Khan Ilchi in the embassy to Petersburg (1814 AD) and according to Alexander I's decision, its follow-up was subject to negotiations with the new Russian ambassador, General Yarmulov in Iran, which in 1817 AD, had a fruitless meeting with Abbas Mirza and Fath Ali Shah Qajar. This embassy not only did not achieve anything for the Iranians in recapturing areas of the Caucasus, but also caused new disputes and misunderstandings, which eventually led to the outbreak of the second war in 1826 AD. The last mission was the embassy of Mirza Mohammad Sadeq Vaqayenegar, the influential figure of the Iranian court, who in 1241 A.H./1826 A.D. with the embassy in Tbilisi, became the agent to settle border disputes with General Yermelov. One of the most important features of this embassy was the delivery of "negotiation instructions" to Vaqayenegar, which is one of the first experiences of diplomatic etiquette in the history of Iran. Examining the documents and sources shows that Abbas Mirza and the Iranian court had already drawn up various plans to advance the demands step by step and to force the Russians to accept Iran's conditions, and in the end, due to various reasons, it was not possible to fulfill the provisions of the document, the negotiation ended and the second three-year war, which led to the Treaty of Turkmanchai, began.

The legitimacy of the Safavid dynasty was widespread to the extent that hardly anyone believed that they could be replaced as kings of Iran. The long shadow of the Safavid dynasty persisted even for years after its demise insofar as the main problem of Ashraf Afghan's government was its lack of legitimacy. Accordingly, all his efforts were devoted to solving this problem. This article attempts to examine the reasons for Ashraf Afghan’s lack of legitimacy, his solutions and the degree of his success based on a descriptive-analytical method and using primary archival sources. The findings show that the shadow of Safavid legitimacy weighed on Ashraf Afghan’s government, forcing him to use various means togain legitimacy. These included issuing letters of amnesty, confirming the deed of endowment for Shiite holy sites, minting coins with legends that would not provoke his Shiite subjects, marrying into the legitimate royal family (Safavids) and being recognized by the Ottoman and Russian empires. However, these acts could not help Ashraf Afghan and his Shiite subjects did not support him in the face of Nader’s invasion, which put an end to hisrule.

Since 1332 AH (1914 AD), the migration of Russian subjects to northern Iran was the beginning of a new chapter in the relations between Iran and Russia. The main cause of this matter was the change in Russian immigration policy, which made it a political strategy for Russia. The Russian government planned to colonize these areas by settling immigrants in the northern parts of Iran, especially in Astarabad province, and gradually separate them from Iran. The immigrants who arrived in this area were composed of different groups who had their own reasons for migration. This article attempts to identify the composition of Russian immigrants in Iran and the reasons for their migration, the process of migration to Astarabad, and the response of Iranian authorities and local governors using a descriptive-analytical method based on archival and documentary sources. The results show that the immigrants were mainly Turkmen and Molokans who were encouraged by Russian statesmen through the promise of land. Consequently, their arrival in Astarabad led to the appropriation and seizure of the land, which in turn increased Russian power and influence in the area and left a deep cultural impact.

In the 16th century, international trade underwent profound changes, the establishment of trade corporations and new trade routes being among the most significant proofs and evidence. The Muscovy Company was one of the first companies to successfully explore and incorporate a new marine route into international trade. It was also able to initiate the first direct commercial and diplomatic relations between England and Iran through the northern seas and Russia. However, after twenty years of business work in Safavid Iran, it ceased its commercial activities in Iran and English commerce. This paper investigates the causes that prompted Muscovy Company to discontinue trade with Iran via the northern seas with Russia, as well as the effective factors that led to this decision. This paper employs a descriptive-analytical approach based on library sources to investigate the reasons for the temporary break in commercial relations between England and Iran in the second half of the 16th century. Our research indicates that the political relations between the Safavid, Ottoman, Russian, and English governments, as well as the ensuing wars and peace, competition, and hostile relations, negatively impacted the company's operations. The geographical and security conditions that dominated the company's route created numerous obstacles for the business of the English merchandise. In addition to overcoming these obstacles, they had to compete with ancient and experienced Turks, Armenians, and Venetians on the Iranian market. The aforementioned impediments persuaded the London-based leaders of the Muscovy Company to abandon trade with Iran via the northern routes.

The Caucasus region has been a special importance to Iran throughout history, and when the central government of Iran was weak, the first part that separated from Iran was the Caucasus region, and during the strong rule of central Iran, the first part that was annexed to Iran was the Caucasus region. The successors of Peter the Great wanted the north of Iran and the Ottomans wanted the west of Iran and over the years they have tried to infiltrate this region. During the Afghan occupation of Iran, the Ottomans occupied Azerbaijan and made the Russian Empire envy. Nader Shah (king of Iran) came to the Caucasus region in 1725-1726 AD and realized the political-military goals of Russia and the Ottomans, who had seized parts of the region by force. Nader was able to defeat the Ottoman forces and capture the Karabakh region. The reasons for the instability in dominating of the central government of Iran in this region have been partly related to the policies of the Iranian rulers and partly to the territorial expansion of the neighbors of this region throughout history. In this article, we will examine Nader Shah's policies in this region with an analytical and descriptive method. Findings show that Nader Shah's policy weakened the ties of the Karabakh region with the Iranian government and the tendency of the Khans to join the powerful governments.

Russia's invasion of Ukraine has had far-reaching consequences in various fields, a situation that has turned into a humanitarian crisis, destabilized the world's food and energy security, and raised questions about the global security architecture. These challenges will not be limited to Ukraine, but because of the globalization of the world we live in, it will create challenges all over the world. Short-term and long-term solutions should be thought of to ensure that these consequences do not lead to one disaster on top of another. And international order will follow? And in response to this question, the hypothesis has been considered that both the short-term and the long-term effects of this crisis definitely include the transition from an international order to an anarchy that will not only be fueled by Ukraine but also Other countries in the region and the international system will also be involved in this disorder. The research method in this article is analytical-descriptive and the sources collected and used are internet and library resources.