معتزله

Rationalism and textualism are among the most challenging topics in the history of Islamic thought and have shown their first signs and fruits in the thinking and practice of the Companions of Al-Aathar and Mu'tazila. In this article, after presenting the most important types of Sadeghain's encountering with these two groups, matching the types is on the agenda in order to open the way to analyze the commonalities and differences of the encountering. The hypothesis of the research was that the common approach of Sadeghain in relation to the leaders of the companions of the work was based on referring to the prophetic tradition for religious understanding; Along with a measured confrontation with the Mu'tazila due to the necessity of reforming the way of using reason and intellect in religious understanding. The findings of the research show the many types of convergence with the companions of Aathar against the many types of divergence with the Mu'tazila. Of course, apart from hadith and rational approaches, other variables have been effective in the type of encountering with these two sects.

The following article is a continuation of another article about genealogical legitimacy and its effect on the theory of Imamate.  While in the previous article, the inconsistencies between the pre-Islamic genealogical culture of the Arabs and the issue of the transfer of the Imamate of Ali and his descendants were investigated, in this article, the difference between the Imāmīyyah and the Zaidīyyah in the genealogical explanation of the Imamate in the period of the third to fifth century A.H. will be analyzed. It shows that those two groups, in an attempt to explain the chain of imams with a coherent theory, put forward different understandings of the genealogical legitimacy, and based on it, when interpreting the important texts of the Ḥadith of Ṯhaqlayn and the verse of Taṭhīr, as well as the story of Mubāhilah, presented various definitions of the genealogical terms Ahl al-Bayt and 'Itrat". Regarding the mixing of Mu'tazila with Shiites and their participation in these discussions, the opinion of Qāzī 'Abdul Jabbār Mu'tazilī has also been examined. Finally, it can be said that while in the general attitude of Zaidīyyah, the mechanism of inheritance was accepted based on the concept of Zurrīyyah as the basis of genealogical legitimacy, Imāmīyyah In order to explain the chain of imams, which usually but not always followed the paternal mechanism, also use the criteria of virtue and Naṣṣ.

This article uses a descriptive and analytical method toexamine the Mu'tazilites' views and attitudes about the homeland, people and race, human equality according to the Mu'tazilite school with emphasis on the ideas of the Mu'tazilites and in this regard, examine the criteria of superiority. And criticizes the walls of discrimination that some governments have raised as criteria of superiority. Jahez, like other Mu'tazilites, considers equality and piety as the most important values ​​of the Islamic State, although in some comments he agrees with the early Umayyad caliphs due to the stabilization of social and class positions of individuals and the observance of some Islamic values ​​desired by the Mu'tazilites.Keywords: moral foundations, Islamic state, hegemony, Mu'tazilites

The Mu'tazilite theological school is one of the most important Islamic theological and intellectual schools that had many supporters in the Islamic world from the second to the fifth century AH. This school of thought was founded in the early second century AH by Wasel ibn Atta (d. 131 AH) in Basra and quickly spread to other Islamic lands. Khuzestan was also affected by this current of thought very soon due to its geographical connection to Basra; According to historical and geographical sources, the prevalence of this school in Khuzestan has been more than any other land. This research intends to study and explain the reasons for the growth and expansion of this theological school in Khuzestan and its historical ups and downs in this region with an analytical look. The main question of the present study is what factors led to the growth and expansion of Etezali ideas in Khuzestan? Findings show that factors such as the geographical and cultural affiliation of Khuzestan to the origin of the Mu'tazilites (Basra), the religious diversity of Khuzestan and the general desire of its people - including properties and the general public - for theological discussions led to the expansion of the Mu'tazilites in Khuzestan.

 The intellectual debates from elite schools to the political arena are always considered an essential part of a society's thought schools. Some of such reflections can be understood from the resources of each period. Refutation is a type of writing whose primary purpose is to prove the invalidity of a particular belief or claim. The present study aims to examine the refutations introduced in the Kitab al-Fihrist of Nadim; some of which have generally disappeared. However, the analysis of their names and types can help to analyze the thought schools of the early Islamic society until 377 AH. Based on the typological technique, this research has studied three types of theologicalrefutations: 1) group-based (religions, eclectic ideas, and cults), 2) individual-based (individuals or their works), and 3) thematic-based. The results show that the Mu'tazilites were the pioneers of the refutations written on others and even among themselves, followed by the Imamis with a long distance. Most Refutations have been devoted to Christians. The determinists in the refutations in sects and religions have been criticized and rejected indicating the intellectual conflict of the Islamic society with determinism. The individual-based refutations written on the person or their works focused on the Mu'tazilites and their theological disputes. Bishr Ibn Moʻtamar and Abu Ali Jobba'i are known as the most famous apostasiographers. In the thematic-based type of refutation, the subjects of 'Imamate, Prophethood, Resurrection, and the Qur'an have received more attention. The origin of refutations came from Baghdad.

In Islam, like other religions, sectarianism has been influenced by various factors reflected in books and treatises. In each era, analyzing the titles of books can help to better understand discourses and intellectual geography. The early Islamic centuries are no exception, especially since it is a period of particular importance for understanding thought schools. These currents are known as the source of change and influence.The writing of books is accelerated from the second century AH, and varied types were produced. The refutation text is one of the types of books. A significant part of Islamic works is documented in criticism and rejection of each other. Although there are not many works left from the earliest sources, examining the books' names and their authors can show the concerns of Islamic thinkers and the intellectual conflicts in the Islamic society. These are the most critical factors eroding the power of the Islamic world.

Considering the importance and precedence of Al-Fihrist, written in 377AH, we examined the refutations based on the typological technique according to their numbers, authors and religion, subject, author's geographical location, and other types of information. The focus of the research is on Theological Refutations.In this research, 369 refutations were extracted from Al-Fihrist.  The necessary information was gathered based on other sources of Biography, Classes, History, Geography, etc. due to incomplete details in the fields.

 Traditional refutations emerged in the early Islamic society by theologians to disprove rival beliefs or claims. The review of 369 refutation titles in Al-Fihrist showed that Baghdad was their primary origin, and their main topic was theological discourse (287 Refutations). The Mu'tazilites were pre-eminent in the theological refutations followed by, with a great distance, the Imamis. The theological refutations of Nadim's Al-Fihrist were examined under three main categories. The refutation is written chiefly about the Christians regarding the eclectic religion.  Determination has been criticized and rejected the most among the sects, showing the importance of determinism debates in the Islamic society.In individual-based writing (individuals or their works) on a particular person or book of refutation, Mu'tazilite theologians were the most suspect of refutation. Yet, many intra-religious refutations have risen from their extreme rationalism. Rationalism based on Islamic heritage was influenced by ideas such as Greek philosophers and Iranian and Indian ontologists as well.Most of the refutations were Mu'tazilites, and most denied in refutations were Mu'tazilites indicating that the Mu'tazilites were claimants of theology. By presenting more or less systematic ideas based on rationalist conceptions, they formulated their theological views and rejected the opinions of others accordingly. This approach was inclusive and was not limited to Islamic sects and religions, as most refutations were Mu'tazilites. Among the refutations of the Imamis against the Mu'tazilites, most works were related to the Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid who encountered them by their methods. He noticed more of the issue of Imamate as the most critical point of difference between Shiites and Mu'tazilites. Imamate, prophecy, resurrection, and the Qur'an have received more attention in thematic-based refutations.

The translation movement in the era of the Abbasid Caliphate introduced Muslims to the cultural and scientific heritage of ancient nations, and through it Muslims became acquainted with Greek, Indian, Syriac, Pahlavi works. The result was the formation of the foundations of new Islamic sciences through this scientific movement. This translation of Greek works introduced Muslims to Greek philosophy and logic, which resulted in the formation of theology and the introduction of rational interpretations of the Holy Quran. The influence of the translation movement was different in the religious sects of that time. Because the Mu'tazilites were a current of thought that was in front of the reference and considered it necessary to use reason in explaining and interpreting religious rules. He used the rational method he had chosen to interpret religious principles. One of the most important manifestations of the influence of Greek logic and philosophy on the interpretation of the Qur'an was issues such as the accidentality of the Qur'an and Fordism in the interpretation of religious texts.

Apostasiography is a literature whose main focus would be to prove the invalidity of a belief or a specific claim. This type of literature can be seen among Islamic works of the second century onward. Although the majority of this literature has been destroyed, the study of mere titles can open new windows for the researchers to read and discover the history, type of conflicts among the Shiite speakers and different ideologies in the Islamic society of that time. To this day, some of these ideologies have been the basis of faiths in different sects in Islam; therefore scrutinizing them from all aspects is of great importance. ‬The present study relies on written references and focuses on theological apostasiography of Shia cults using the early scholar list of works namely Rijal of Najashi, Tousi and Kitāb al-Fihrist of Nadim. Quantification of the information in Apostasies, extrareligious, extrasectious and intersectious typology and their frequencies are used as research methods through which the arrangements of the Islamic society are analyzed. The results show that the majority of apostasiographers are Imami among which Shaikh Mofid is the most prolific. Extrareligious Apostasiography has not been popular among Shiite authors and scholars. In extrareligious apostasies, above all, the Mu'tazilites have been subject to criticism and rebuttal while in interreligious apostasies, The exaggerants. The number of apostasies produced in the third century exceeds that of the other centuries.

The book of al-Jamel was written to prove the legitimacy of Imam 'Ali in the Battle of Jamel. Theological views of Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid's contemporary sects on this event impressed and persuaded him to write about the Battle of Jamel and selecting of historical narratives about it. The question is what intellectual conditions influenced Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid to gathere the narratives of the Jamal and to write this book? Based on the textual analysis of al-Jamal's text, this study shows that Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid was against the two beliefs spreading in the society of the legitimacy of the performance of Companions of the Prophet at the head of the two armies as well as the theory of “Legitimate heads/ Illegitimate companions”. He wrote his work on three axes: the explicit deviation of Jamel fighters from the orders of the Islamic religion; their insistence on war, their rejection of ijtihad and their repentance; the virtues and supereminence of Imam 'Ali.

The strategical position of vice and virtue in the political theology of Muʿtazila, as Imamat is next to it, has had extreme effects on the political history of this group. This research, using a theoretical framework of the typology of the positive and negative fight, and participation in power, has studied this impact. Responding to the question of the position and impact level of vice and virtue in history of Muʿtazila, the theory of capacity and dimension of the fifth element of Muʿtazila toward social-cultural act and political act in history, has been tested in the form of three approaches based on the theoretical framework. Therefore, the article shows that there are three historical approaches toward vice and virtue between Muʿtazilids: The approach of positive fight that is about to combat with illegitimate rulers, as taking part in the uprising of Hassanids and the uprising against Valid b. Zaid. Next is the approach of the negative fight that goes on close to an insurgency but does not make an effective action, as Wasil b. ‘Ata and ‘Amr b. Ubaid did. The third approach is cooperating in power as the think having access to the centers of authority is necessary for spreading their opinion, as Ibn Abī Duʾād and T̲h̲umāma b. As̲h̲ras did so. These three approaches show the formation of Revolutionaries, Reformists, and Indecisives beside the semi-Idealogic and authoritarian government in the history of Muʿtazila.

Kiramat of saints was one of the most discussed topics in Islamic thought kiramat in general means the possibility of occurrence of a marvel by a person other than the Prophet (Valli). Although Kiramat and mo’jiza (miracle) are both marvels, one is done by the Valli (saint) and the latter by the Prophet. The possibility of the occurrence of Kiramat by a person other than the Prophet has always been a controversy. Generally, all Islamic sects have confirmed this possibility except for the Mu'tazilites. They believe that Kiramat and miracles do not have a significant difference, so they can eliminate the function of miracles (which prove the prophecy of the prophets). This research is based on several important sources of Mu'tazilites, seeks to find out the reason for the Mu'tazilite’s point of view. It seems that denying the possibility of occurrence and occurrence of Kiramat, by Mu’tazilite has been rooted in their intellectual and epistemological bases.

Mu'tazilites, as an intellectual theological school flourishing at the early Abbasid era, had a great influence on the establishment of Abbasid caliphate. This paper, using a descriptive and analytical method based on library resources, attempts to explain causes and contexts of the rise and decline of this intellectual school, as well as the relations between the Mu'tazilites and the other outstanding theological school known as Ahl al-Hadith. The main question of the paper is why Mutawakkil (r. 847-861), despite of the marvellous contribution of Mu'tazilites to intellectual development in Islamic society, was opposed to them. The study's conclusion is that caliph Ma'mun (r. 813-833), in confrontation with Amin (r. 809-813) and his supporting sect of al-Hashwiyah which denied the authority of Ma'mun, intended to ratify the opposite thought system of Mu'tazilites who stood against orthodox Arabs. After Ma'mun, Mutawakkil, again by supporting Ahl al-Hadith, combated Mu'tazilites and tried to restore Arab nationalism.

There were serious disagreements between the Sufism and Mutazilism, both of which came about in the second century AH., for the Sufism proximity to Ahl al- Hadith (the people of the hadith) thought, namely the Shafii, Hanbali, Maliki, Thauri and Zahirite sects. This is considered as the major issue of discrepancy among Sufists and Mu’tazilists. Since the people of the hadith were irreconcilable enemies of the Mutazilites so was the unavoidable clash between Sufists and Mutazilites thought. Moreover, these two doctrines had disagreements over several other issues; the most important of which was denying the spiritual theurgy of Sufi leaders by Mutazilites. In addition, there were some differences on the subjects like attributes of god, seeing god, determinism and free will. Having experienced a heyday in the Buyid period, the Mutazilsm finally exterminated. Although the Asharis played a chief role in this event, the Sufi’s part was also considerable. This paper studies on the reasons of disagreement between the Sufists and Mutazilites and the role of Sufism in declining the Mutazilism.

Before Safavid era, Hanafi of Isfahan was one of the main Sunni schools of law in Isfahan. Also before Seljuq dynasty, Hanafi followers were a minority group in society. Having been supported by Seljuq Emperors and commanders, Hanafis find themselves in a strong position, soon they started a rivalry with Shafi’i, and it became one of the main problems in Isfahan through centuries. The present paper is trying to answer the following questions through applying historical method and based on first hand resources: 1. What made the situation prepared for development and growth of Hanafi in Isfahan? 2. What are the reasons and results of the conflicts between Hanafi and Shafi’i? The hypotheses supplied in order to answer the mentioned questions are: - The main reason of the development of Hanafi is the supports from Seljuk Emperors. - The roots of the conflicts between Hanafi and Shafi’i were in political, Social and theological contex; and the main consequent of these conflicts was immediate conversion of people to Shia in early years of Safavid era.

Without in Islamic scientific community Many denominations have come together to present and exchange ideas. One of the most important historical and theological schools with a significant role in the emergence of theological ideas, have had Mutazilite. Mutazilite taken from Mutazilite word means away and resignation and considered as one of the most famous Theological schools in science of the sects that Wasil ibn Ata was founded in Basra in the first half of the second century. He benefited from Hassan Basri s school that he was known in fiqh, hadith, Sufism and religious issues. But then he left him because to Plan of the new theory about committing great sins. Among Mutazilite both Basra and Baghdad were due to the expansion of the Islamic sect And Theologians of the two schools Much Served for promoting Islamic beliefs and defend that the The remains of the two sects, is proof of this. In explanation of vote Mutazilah Basra and Baghdad, they have been reviewed From the perspective of theology and history, The quality of the formation of the historically, Historical periods Mutazilite, Division Mutazilite Historically, Mutazilite principles, theologians and differences between the two groups on issues such Imamate and Shiism, good and evil, determinism and free will, the interest of God, occurrence and former the Quran and its scripture, Knowing God, the God thanks to the rule have been reviewed.

As one of the oldest Jewish sects, |araism was founded in the middle of the 2nd century AD and later on, they were accepted as the mainstream of Iranian Jewish society. A remarkable feature of the |araism is that they were influenced by Islamic theology as well as its intellectual transactions with Mu`tazilism. This article surveys the formative history of |araism and delineates how they came under the influence of Islamic theology.

Ash’arids and Hanbalids are both considered as Sunnite groups. Before Saljuqids gained power, Hanbalids were the most powerful and populated religious groups in the social and political arena of Baqdad community. Through Saljuqid's gaining power and the curse of Asharids by the order of Toqrol in 455 (after hijrah), a great number of Asharid scholars such as Joveini and Qoshairi migrated to Iraq and Hijaz, and this very factor affected on the propagation of Asharid religion in Baqdad. In the first phase of Saljuqid government (429-465 after hijrah), there existed a kind of convergent interaction among Asharids, Hanbalids and Motazilah in field of jurisprudent and theological sciences, and defending from caliphate and strengthening its bases were the main concern of Asharid and Hanbalid theoreticians. Meanwhile, Asharid scholars were more motive, and in spite of the existence of ideological and theological commonalities between these two groups, it occurred some disputes in the social arena between them. According to this hypothesis that some ideological and theological issues and disagreements was the major reason of disputes between Asharids and Hanbalids and the political interference of Abbasid caliphates and Saljuqid sultans along with the political disagreements among them was not the cause of these disputes, this article is to investigate and clarify the relationship and convergent and divergent interactions between these two groups in time of the presence of Saljuqids in Baqdad (429-465 after hijrah).

The beginning of Hassanids uprising for gaining power dated back to the Umayyid period which resulted different reactions from unofficial base of power in the society and gathered variant spectrum of supporters for confronting dominant power. Though researchers have studied different aspects of Hassanids uprisings, this article will discuss the reason for advocacy or accompaniment of some followers of Islamic sects such as Zaydiyyah, Mu’tazilids and Murjids with the first Hassanids uprisings, the descendants of Hassan Mothana, in an analytic approach. According to researches, the homogeneity and heredity preeminence of Mohammad and his brother Ebrahim amongst other claimer for leadership, the necessity for uprising against oppressive ruler and the interpretation from the meaning of savior in the title "Mahdi", are characteristics which have had the most influence on advocacy and accompaniment of some religious sects with the first Hassanids Saadat's uprisings. It has to be mentioned that some groups of the Prophet's family from Hassanids Saadat believed in the necessity for a struggle with the oppressive ruler, conduced to their maximum convergence with Hassanids, their attendance in uprising and the final formation of the sect Zaidiyyah.