ممالیک

In the province of the Crusades, Tripoli was the center of the Shiite and scholarly government of Bani Ammar. This city fell into the hands of the Crusaders in 503 and remained in the hands of the Europeans for 185 years until Saif al-Din Qalawon recaptured it in 688 and destroyed the old city. The new city of Tripoli was built near it. The presence of the crusaders in this area caused an interruption in the scientific process of Tripoli. When this city was conquered again and the Mamluk sultans started building Sunni schools in it, the northern areas of Tripoli followed different religions. They were Shiites. The long-term separation of Tripoli from its Islamic historical process caused its Shiite scientific flow to be interrupted, but what caused Tripoli to continue its civilizational life after many wars during the Crusades and after complete destruction its geographical location. This research seeks to investigate the impact of the crusades on the scientific and civilizational process of Tripoli from the Bani Ammar period to the re-conquest by the Mamluks. The research method in this article is historical in order to understand the scientific and civilizational process and its developments. Examined. Therefore, using library tools, first-hand historical sources have been used to describe the historical process.

Egypt and Syria were part of the territory of the Shia Fatimid state (297-567 AH). With the rise of the Sunni Mamluk state in Egypt in 648 AH, studying the political and religious relations of the Mamluk with the Shia residents of Egypt and Syria gains great importance. The main question of this research is: what impact did religion and politics have on the religious and political relations of the Mamluk with the Shias of Egypt and Syria? This research has tried, through a descriptive-analytical method and by focusing on the vital role of religion in the political and cultural structure of the Mamluk state, to examine the religious policies and beliefs of the Mamluk and the Salafi Hanbali jurists of that era. The conflict of the Mamluk with the Ilkhanids and the establishment of the Abbasid caliphate in Egypt also added to the complexity of these political and religious relations. The findings of this research show that the hostile policy of the Mamluk towards the Shīʿas was mainly due to following the Ayyubids and fear of the Shīʿa background in Egypt and Syria.

The Husseinis are a group of descendants of Imam Hussein (AS) who migrated to Egypt in the third century. Considering the fact that the Hosseini were one of the Bani Hashem tribes in Hejaz, why their presence in Egypt and their position in the governments is a question that has been addressed in this article. The Hosseinis went to Egypt for various reasons, such as intra-family disputes, giving them fiefdoms, and the presence of governments such as the Fatimids, and obtained political positions such as niqab, lawyer, military judge, and academic positions such as teachers of schools and mosques. The social position of the Husseinis in Egypt caused one of the most important districts of Cairo to be named after them, because of this position, people other than this family who lived in this area were also called Husseinis. The importance of this area led to the settlement of the Mamluk government and military forces in it. In addition, Hosseinieh neighborhood was also an economic place for buying and selling slaves. This neighborhood was destroyed by the year 821 for various reasons, the most important of which can be considered the moral changes in this area due to the presence of the Uiratis.

One of the most important factors influencing the monetary system of the Bahri Mamluks (784-648 AH) was trade. The Bahri MamluKs from the time of coming to power, by dominating the ports of the Mediterranean and Red Seas, flourished maritime trade from China to Europe.They supplied the gold and silver needed to mint coins through trade with West Africa and imports from elsewhere. But at some point in their time, this monetary system became disordered for some reason. Dinars and dirhams in the Bahri Mamluks countries as a valuable and religious coin, the factor of economic stability and Messi coins, illegal money and one of the destructive factors of the economy of Bahri Mamluks. This research, which is a kind of historical research, with a descriptive-analytical method, seeks to answer the question of what effect trade had on their monetary structure in the era of maritime countries? What was their monetary system like? As a result of research is determined that the Bahri Mamluks monetary system was influenced by foreign trade and as long as enough gold and silver entered their territory and minted high-denomination coins, they were economically stable and since imports of gold and silver declined and copper coins were minted and used extensively in trading, the economies and monetary system of the Bahri Mamluks were in Inflation crisis.

Throughout the Islamic History until the establishment of the Uttoman Caliphate, the Mamluks was the first state which developed its diplomatic relations. Such development was fuelled by Commercial relations due to the Crusades, establishment of the Ilkhanid in Iran(East of the Islamic World) and the economic growth of the European nation-states including Venice,Geneva, Florence. Diplomatic relations wereaffected by the commercial ones. Due to its strategic situation and its vast realm, the Mamluk state managed to establish good political and economical relationships. Its Hostility to the Ilkhanids also pushed them to establish political relations with the Christian states of Europe. Meanwhile, the Mamluk political relations with the Christian states of Europe had its consequences in politics and the foreign relationships. One may more vividly understand the Mamluk’s foregin policy and its power relations through such political relationships. The study shows that in relation to the Christian states of Europe, the Mamluk always took their own interests into consideration. The Mamluk’s relations with the Christian states of Europe that was confined to the economic relations, to send the ambassador, to send letters emphasizing respect for the citizenship rights of the Christians and to open their church would end in hostile as well as friendly ties with them. Along with the foreign relationships and ambassador exchange, the commercial ties were on the way. The Mamluk’s Main goal to establish political relationships the Christian states of Europe is, first of all, to protect their national interests and to gain legitimacy against the Ilkhanid’s.

The Safavid period is undoubtedly one of the most important periods in the history of Iran in terms of foreign relations. Shah Ismail, the founder of the Safavid dynasty, bordered on the Mamluk government following the suppression of the sectarian monarchs and the remnants of the Aq Quyunlus in western Iran. It was a large but declining state based in Egypt, the Levant, and the Hejaz, whose rule was threatened first by the Portuguese and then by the Ottomans and Safavids. Safavid relations with the Mamluks due to Shah Ismail's territorial expansion in the Levant, were at first hostile and accompanied by border clashes, then due to the hostility of the Ottoman government to them, their relations have improved and changed. This research, using a descriptive-analytical method and using library data, seeks to answer the question of how and for what reason Shah Ismail Safavid had relations with the Mamluks? The findings showed that King Ismail's relations with the Mamluks had been in two stages for fourteen years. Their relations began at first hostile, but with the rise of Sultan Salim to power in the Ottoman Empire and his aggressive approach to them, their relations became friendly and led to a military alliance between the two sides.

Shiite presence in Egypt and the Levant dates back to the time of the first arrival of Muslims, Shiite growth peaked during the Fatimid period, and despite the fall of the Shiite Fatimid rule in Egypt and the Levant, Shiites remained in the land And they were the Levant, but in later periods the Mamluks greatly reduced the power of the Shiites, so that by the end of the Mamluk period there was little Shiite influence left in Egypt and the Levant. This article seeks to analyze the historical reasons for the hostile and strict stance of the Mamluks towards the Shiites. The findings of this study show; The influence of some Salafi Hanbali jurists in the Mamluk court, the confrontation between the Ilkhans and the Mamluks, the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate of Egypt and the Levant, the Mamluks 'fear of Shiite history and originality, and the Mamluks' influence on the Ayyubids, especially in religious politics

The study of the effect of various factors on the decline and destruction of civilizations, especially Islamic civilization, has always been of interest to the researchers. The Muslim state of Mamalik has been one of the most important states in the history of Islamic culture and civilization for nearly three centuries. One of the effective factors in the decline and destruction of Mamalik has been the frequent outbreak of cholera and plague, which, in addition to high human casualties, has led to the destruction of the infrastructure of that important government in the history of Islamic civilization. This article, with a descriptive-analytical method based on library sources, seeks to explain the impact of cholera and plague as the effective factors in the collapse of the Mamalik government. Findings show that the frequent outbreak of cholera and plague in the Mamalik era has had a devastating effect on the cultural situation and various parts of the Mamalik civilization. By spreading superstition, it has reduced rationality and by weakening the civilizational infrastructure, it plunged the Mamalik government into the abyss of decline and extinction.

The religious relations in the strategic region of Sham have been constantly at the mercy of the policies dominated on the intellectual approaches of this region. Consideration of the way of scholars’ taking part in giving the direction to these relations in the important and sensitive era of Mamluk can discover part of the intellectual disputes in this district.
In this respect, the present research is to answer the question related to the role of Sunnite and Shiite scholars in regard with the religious relations of Mamluk era relying on the descriptive-analytical approach. The findings of this research clarify that the Sunnite scholars with the support of the Sunnite higher social rank rulers took a kind of confrontational approach towards this issue and the ground for the severe social disputes between Sunnites and Shiites and consequently more and more divergence among them was provided. On the other hand, the effort of Shiite scholars towards preserving the identity and existence of Shi’ism along with convergence with Sunnites wat not successful. This issue was due to the Sunnites’ frail and passive status as well as their precautionary concealment. Accordingly, the ground for the settlement of social disputes could not be provided.

The spread of contagious diseases was one of the main problems in the era of Burji and Bahri Mamluks. These diseases had devastating effects on the social and economical status of Egypt during the Mamluk period. Mamluks each had their own methods to deal with epidemics. The Bahris were more pragmatic than the Burjis, they built hospitals and took care of patients and doctors, while the Burjis interpreted epidemics with a religious outlook and fighting against corruption and cracking down on religious minorities was considered a way to combat these diseases. This article, with a descriptive-analytical method, seeks to answer the questions of what are the causes of the prevalence of epidemics in the Mamluk era and how Bahris and Burjis dealt with them. Results indicate that appropriate economical and political conditions of the Bahris and their successful performance led to the control of the disease and reduction of its destructive effects, but the unfavourable political and economical status of the Burjis and inappropriate performance confronting epidemics had further weakened their government.‎

During the fifty-years of the Mongol invasion, Anatolia (Asia Minor) became increasingly important for the Mongols. After the establishment of the Ilkhanids Mongol government in Iran, the eastern and central parts of Anatolia was seized by Ilkhanids. Until the end of their rule, they extended their domains to the borders of the Byzantine Empire. Henceforth, Ilkhanids important goal was to cut off the relationship between the Golden Horde, the Russian Mongol, and the Mamluks in Egypt and Syria. Practically, to prevent the development of the relations of these rivals, the Ilkhanids made some kind of Anatolian blockade, which enjoyed great success in using the port of Trebizond. In the middle of this relationship, the Byzantine Empire, whose capital was Constantinople, had a commercial significance. Therefore, the Ilkhanids government was forced to establish friendly relations with the Byzantine Empire. To maintain its commercial life, Byzantine Empire had to create a trade balance with the Venice and Genoa republics which had commercial relations with the ports of Kaffa in the north of the Black Sea and Alexandria in the southern Mediterranean. This was also not something the Ilkhanids government could ignore. At the same time, the port of Trebizond, which was exclusively available to the Ilkhanids, was the main focus of its policy towards all the activists mentioned above, and during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, this port entered into the stage of trade and politics of the Black Sea.

Islamic history researchers are always eager to know the reasons of decline and fall of Islamic dynasties. Surely the political causes are considered as the most important ones in such context, as they are the base for other factors in decline of the governments. This paper is aimed to survey the political reasons of Mamlukes state using an analytical approach. The findings reveal that lack of national and religious legitimacy had played the most important roles for such a decline. Conflicts among Mamlukes trobes like Boorji and Joolban in addition to heuristic conflict of political power structure have been decisive. The uprisings, which were mainly due to succession crises, expedited their collapse. Finally, decline of their position among Islamic world and Osmanids invasion led to their fall. This paper tries to study the reasons of this issue using desk study method and first hand references, by means of an analytical-critical approach.

Military constitution of Ilkhanid and Mamalik states were led to especial position of army and more efficacy of military nobilities. Mentioned efficacy as well as the kind of these two states, that mostly were conflicted, were caused that Militaries had more roles in determining these relations. Some samples were freely or compulsory refuges of militaries to the realm of enemy state that was welcomed with great acceptance and influenced politics and economics of conflicted realms. To seek refuge, is explained and analyzed as the problem of our research. The question is what effects have had the place and function of noble military in Ilkhanid and Mamalik states? The result of the research by descriptive and analytic approach indicates that refugee of noble militaries was as factors of conflicts while Ilkhanids have used mentioned problem as a motivation for attacking Damascus, Mamaliks have tried to use this as political tool and put pressure on their enemies.

The 10th century AH was very important for Muslim lands, including Yemen in the era of Taherian (858-945 AH), because during this time, Portugal as a colonist country, in order to have access to new maritime routes, to seize Muslim commercial centers, as well as monopoly of Indian medicine trade, was moving eastward, into Yemen. At the same time, the Ottoman Empire, which was one somehow the flagship of Islam in the world, entered Yemen to save the Muslim cities and islands of India, and regarding the important commercial and strategic position of this land, dominated it in 945 AH. The present study, using a descriptive-analytical method and referring to Arabic and Turkish resources and manuscripts, seeks to answer the question: "What were the reasons for the Ottomans to attack Yemen and what were the consequences and results of the attack?" The results of the study indicate that the Ottomans treacherously entered Yemen in order to destroy the Portuguese, as well as to secure the Islamic city of Mecca and Medina, with the deception and murder of the Muslim Sultan of Yemen, which resulted in consequences such as creating many problems for the Ottomans and also lack of public trust in them.

One of the most famous visual manifestations of Mamlūkid administration system is the symbolic use of motifs of animals, plants and everyday life tools as heraldry signs (rank; pl. Runūk) in various forms, among which the symbol of lion was used widely for the sultans, emirs and high rank officials. Historical evidences, conceptual framework, cultural context and developments of such uses of symbol of lion in Mamlūkid heraldry system are investigated in the present article. The author also suggests that it may be possible (or at least it is worth for studying) that some of uses of this symbol could be based on supposed talismanic power of this ancient symbol.

The strategic areas like Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, and Palestine during the significant historical era of Ayubids up to the end of Mamalik have been observant of the most important events of the political history such as constant crusade wars and Mongolian assault. These military and political happenings along with the cultural and social situations of this era provided the development of various intellectual trends among the Sunnites and Shiites of this region.
Reviewing these intellectual trends can be valuable in regard with the identification of historical origins of the present intellectual and political events in this part of the Islamic world.
Relying on descriptive-analytical approach, the present article is to answer the question related to the identification of effective intellectual trends as the historical heritage in this area following the investigation of cultural and social conditions of this area during Ayubids and Mamalik era.
The findings of research illustrates that it can be referred to the development of Sufism and some deviated Shiite and Sunnite trends as well as revealing prejudice in dealing with the great thinkers.

Mamluks despite their glorious past gradually became weak and finally collapsed. As this fact has always been a question for historians, this research from the view point of economic issues, seeks to find the main economic factors which collaborated in Mamluks fall. Applying descriptive analytical approach, the study confirms that a bulk of economic in addition to political issues put serious effect on the fall of Mamluk authority. Political issues such as: the lack of legitimacy, civil conflicts, succession crisis and Ottoman’s frequent invasions should also be considered in the subject. In fact economic crisis as well as the discovery of “Cape of Good Hope” which resulted to the abandonment of Mamluk trade routes beside other problematic issues like: natural catastrophes, recession, poor production industry, administrative corruption, hoard and public discontent, led to the collapse of Mamluks. Indeed economic crisis along with political issues may lead to the collapse of any other administration.

Since the earliest Islamic centuries the development of Shiite trends has been constantly one of the concerns of governments in the strategic areas of Syria including the present district of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Jordan. The rulers of this area, since the time of Atabakan e- Zangi -521-624 After Hijrah- till the end of Mamluks era -650-922 After Hijrah- followed their policy to strengthen the traditions of Sunnites through the development of schools. This issue led to the development of narrative sciences and prevalence of selfism due to their adequate dynamism. At this time, Shiite could provide the ground toward the improvement of Shiite beliefs and their propagation in the other areas. This writing is to study the religious policies as well as the educational-scientific status of Syria in this span of time through the investigation of primary historical sources.

The access to seas and high seas was one of the significant concerns of Iranian government's foreign policy during history. The geographical position of Iran- located two seas in north and south of it- provided a golden opportunity for Iranian government to have the influential role in international trade and protection of national security. Ilkhanid government settled in a land which lying from Oxus in east to Euphrates in west and from southern coasts of Black sea in north to Persian Gulf in south. By employing marine policy in commercial relations, Ilkhanid government played a substantial role in international trade during middle Ages. The factors of Ilkhanid's marine trade were based on dominance over Caucasus and election of Azarbayejan district as capital, sovereignty over Mesopotamia in order to control Red Sea and Indian Ocean and also influence over Anatolia and Asia Minor in order to control the southern ports of Black Sea. This marine policy had some considerable consequences such as control of commercial routes between East and West, Competition with Golden Horde and Mamalik government, relations with commercial government of Mediterranean districts and inauguration of commercial road of Tabriz to Hormoz and from Hormoz to Indian Ocean and China Sea which was regarded to be a significant event in international trade history.
This research investigates the role of Ilkhanid's marine policy in changes of marine trades between East and West. The outcome of such research demonstrates that Ilkhanid government not only resisted against local marine and its rivals but also had the effective role in connection of marine trade districts of Mediterranean, Black Sea and Indian Ocean.