typology

Old Qaen stands as a prominent city in Quhistan (South Khorasan), having undergone significant transformations during the Islamic period. Although the city is frequently mentioned in historical chronicles, accurate information regarding its ancient location has been sought through archaeological excavations. The analysis of pottery recovered between 2012 and 2016 by Rajab-Ali Labbaf has provided archaeologists with essential data concerning the founding and various historical phases of the old city of Qaen. The objective of this analytical research was to identify the pottery types present in the area, establish the settlement chronology, and examine its connections with other regions. To achieve this, 177 potsherds from the excavations were initially classified, and subsequently, 55 representative pieces were selected for detailed typological and chronological study. Research findings concerning pottery reveal that Qaen was established in the early Islamic centuries and persisted through the mid-Safavid period, with the Seljuk period identified as its most prosperous era. The quality of pottery produced in this region was on par with that of other notable pottery centers in Iran. However, the lack of golden pottery (zarrin fam), silhouette, and enamel (Mina’i) ware points to a shortfall in the expertise of Qaen’s potters regarding these types. Additionally, Qaen has established significant trans-regional links with regions including Khorasan, Sistan, and Jazmurian.

The Achaemenid Empire, founded by Cyrus and reaching its peak under Darius and Xerxes, is renowned for its rich cultural legacy, with Persepolis being one of its most important capitals. Archaeological excavations in this area, conducted by Herzfeld and Schmidt between 1931-1934, uncovered numerous artifacts, including spearheads. Despite these findings, no records of these spearheads exist in the Persepolis museum archive. This research focuses on the absence of documentation for the spearheads in the museum's collection. The study analyzes 214 spearheads, classifying them into two main groups: three-pronged and two-pronged spearheads, further divided into tube-shaped and stemmed subgroups. The findings indicate that three-pronged, short-tube spearheads are the most common type in the Persepolis museum collection.

The art of bas-reliefs at Persepolis represents a remarkable synthesis of indigenous aesthetics and the cultural and artistic elements of various civilizations, executed with exceptional accuracy and precision. A significant aspect of these prominent motifs is their resemblance to fractal geometry, which mirrors patterns derived from nature. This relationship has proven instrumental in conveying modern motifs within the context of ancient Iranian art. This article seeks to address the following questions: What are the fractal motifs found in the bas-reliefs, and what are their defining characteristics?

Zel Hastijan Cave, in the city of Delijan, is considered one of the most important sites in archaeological studies between the central plateaus and the western part of the country, and was excavated in 2023. During one season of excavation in this ancient cave, unique cultural monuments such as manuscript leather, a Bullae, textile, wooden tools, and pottery were obtained. Due to the significance of pottery and its role in archaeological studies, this cultural material was studied in this paper. For this research, 78 significant pieces of pottery from the Sasanian era, out of 1389 pieces of pottery obtained from the excavation, were selected for study. At first, these potteries were classified and typified based on technical specifications and shape. This research has a fundamental quiddity with a descriptive-analytical approach and the procedure method of this research is library and field studies (pottery). The main purpose of this article is the quantitative and qualitative study of Sasanian pottery in Zel cave. The results of the research showed that these potteries belong to the late Sasanian period and the early Islamic period, and among the shapes identified among the pottery of Zel cave, in the order of abundance, they include jars, pots, bowls, skillet, plates, and trays, and the most common motifs. The decoration of the pottery is carved patterns. Most of the pottery has proper firing (although some of them have improper firing) and this shows the temperature control of the kiln for firing pottery. In general, the results of the typological comparisons and comparative chronology of the pottery samples of Zel cave hill clearly show the similarity of these samples have with the pottery of its neighboring and extra-regional areas; In such a way that the greatest cultural similarity have with the regions of western Iran and northwestern Iran.

Gorieh site located in Zarneh section of Ivan Gharb city is one of the important Sassanid and early Islamic sites in archeological studies of the west of the country which has been excavated in 2015. During a season of excavation in this ancient site, a variety of cultural artifacts were found, including pottery, and due to the importance of pottery and its role in archaeological studies, this cultural material was studied in this article. Therefore, for this study, 127 pieces of pottery from the Sassanid era, from 1500 pieces of pottery obtained from excavation, were selected for study. Initially, these pottery were classified typologically based on their technical characteristics and shape or form. This research has a fundamental nature with a descriptive-analytical approach and the method of this research has two parts: library and field studies (pottery). The main purpose of this article is to study the quantity and quality of Sassanid pottery in Gorieh area, then their typology, classification and relative chronology. Chronology has been done comparatively and cultural relations with adjacent areas have been explained based on comparative studies of pottery. The results showed that among the identified forms among the pottery of Gorieh area, including Ewer, jug, bowl, cup and plate and the most common decorative patterns of pottery are carved patterns. Pottery is often suitable for baking and a sign of oven temperature control for baking pottery, and the quality of their construction is generally average. Also, a comparative comparison showed that in terms of relative chronology, Sassanid Gorieh pottery is relatively similar to the areas of the late period. Therefore, while having some local characteristics, the pottery of this area with areas such as, Qasr-e-Bonsar, Hajiabad, Sassanian sites identified in the survey of the Mahneshan of Zanjan, North Khuzestan, Mianab Shushtar, Bushehr, Ras al-Khaimah and Tal-e mahuz sites, Abu Sharifa in Iraq They are comparable and in addition to the influences of regional style, it is most similar to the cultural sphere of southwestern Iran.

Natural and human factors, including climatic characteristics, cultural contexts, livelihood types, and various other elements, have led to the formation of two types of rural layouts in Iran: flatlands and foothill settlements. The spatial organization in foothill villages in Iran is predominantly terraced, characterized by roof-yard layouts. However, some foothill villages exhibit unique features that differ from this dominant pattern. This study, focusing on the village of Dashtak, examines the ratio of mass to space in buildings, as well as their spatial organization, to analyze the differences compared to prevalent examples. The research method is based on field studies, with data collected through library research and direct observations. The objective of the study is to identify the factors shaping the distinctive architectural layout of Dashtak village. In the initial stage, a map of the village houses was created through field observation. Among the existing houses, only those with historical value, valid documentation, and the possibility of repeated visits were selected and analyzed. The analysis of architectural organization, the arrangement of mass and space, and access types revealed that the presence of a central courtyard in addition to the roof-yard layout indicates a unique spatial organization in foothill villages. This arrangement can be attributed to factors such as blocking undesirable winds, creating a private boundary against the public area of the roof-yard, and providing secondary access during emergencies through eastern and western balconies.

Place-names have a significant role in revealing the information about a region in terms of history, geography and linguistics. Due to its special geographical location, the Sar Pol-e Zahab region has long been considered as a buffer zone between the Mesopotamian plains and the Zagros highlands. Numerous archaeological finds, including inscriptions, kudurrus, seals, geographical maps and written sources, from the time of the early dynasties of Sumer to the early Islamic era, refer to this region by various names. Ḫalman, Chalonitis, Chala, Albania, Hulwan, Halah, Walashfarr, and Shadh Firuz are some of the names associated with this geographical area. The aim of this research is, firstly, to study the place names attributed to this area in different periods and, secondly, to record the information available in the various sources in order to draw up a typology of place names relating to this area. This will help us to better understand the political, cultural, and economic conditions and the type of settlements in this region. The result shows that, in addition to the variety of the place names used for this region, it has witnessed the diversity and dynamics of multiple religions in this geographical area, as well as many political and civil activities. The motivation and purpose behind the choice of most of the names attributed to this region cannot be discerned, but political governance and geographical environment can be considered as the main components in these attributions.

Hazira tombs in Greater Khorasan are among the prominent architectural manifestations of different Islamic centuries. Hazira is a burial in open space that is surrounded by wood, brick or stone in order to fulfill the Prophet’s emphasis on burial in a non-roofed place. The purpose of this research is to determine the typology of the architecture of Haziras in the Greater Khorasan in order to identify the evolution of their construction in terms of form, analysis of spatial location, type of materials, decorations, differences and similarities among each of the,. The findings indicate that the studied Haziras can be classified into three types: simple (3rd&4th centuries AH), simple combination (5th-14th centuries AH) and complex combination (8th-14th centuries AH). In each historical period, significant changes have occurred in the structure, location and decorations of the Haziras. The theoretical approach of the paper is cultural historical studies, using data collection through desk studies and field visits.

After the assassination of ʿUthmān, the third caliph, that the Levant (Shāmāt) raised the opposition flag against the government of Imam Ali (PBUH), and the Levant was introduced as Umayyad unified land. However, in some reports, it has been mentioned about groups that were not associated with the Levantines masses, and separated themselves from Muawiya's army. This research which is organized by descriptive-analytical method with a focus on behaviors has divided the Residents of Levant into two groups: “companionship” and “non-companionship” and then analyzed the political stands of the Levant Arabs in relation to the way of supporting or opposing Mu'awiyah. The research results show that the influence of Byzantine-religious beliefs, Muawiyah's use of foreign chief policy, urbanization and homogeneity of the population, totalitarianism and blackmail had the greatest effect on Levantines subordination from Muawiyah. Moreover, We can point to the following factors as other reasons for accompanying Muawiyah: the presence of Imam Ali (PBUH) followers in Levant, the policies of Imam Ali (PBUH) in Levantines awareness, the policy of neutrality, profit seeking and religious caution.

Zeroavad Tepe II, situated in Davoudabad, Markazi Province, is recognized as one of the significant Sasanian sites in the Iranian Central Plateau. It underwent one season of archaeological excavation in 2022, revealing a plethora of cultural artifacts, particularly potsherds. Given the pivotal role of ceramics in archaeological studies, this article focuses on the analysis of 86 potsherds sampled from a total of 918 pieces recovered during the excavation of Sasanian deposits of the mound. Initially, the sherds were categorized and classified based on their technical specifications and form. This study, as a fundamental research, follows a descriptive-analytical approach. The research methods consists of two parts: library research and field studies focusing on ceramics. The findings indicate that the most frequently identified forms at Zeroavad Tepe II are jars, bowls, pots, plates, and trays, in order of frequency. The predominant decorative motifs are engraved designs. It is worth noting that the majority of the ceramics have been properly fired, suggesting that the kiln temperature was carefully controlled during the firing process. Furthermore, the comparative analysis reveals that the pottery from this region shares similarities with other areas such as Cham Ruteh, Sirm Shāh, Qal’eh Yazdgerd, Qal’eh Gori, Ecbatana (Hegmataneh), Veliran, Tesmijan, Vigol and Harasgan, and Berdankun. Additionally, the ceramics recorded in Mah Neshan in Zanjan, North Khuzestan and Mian Ab in Shushtar, as well as the Abu Sharifah site in Iraq, also exhibit resemblances. Apart from its regional characteristics, the Sasanian ceramics from Zeroavad Tepe II indicate the closest resemblance to the western Iran and the Iranian Central Plaetau.

The northeastern region of Iran, characterized by a diverse and expansive landscape, has been a significant area for cultural and commercial exchanges throughout history. The geographical features, including parallel mountain ranges, natural valleys, and basins, have facilitated interactions between the peripheral desert plains, the eastern Alborz Mountain, and the Iranian Plateau with Central Asian regions. The Tepe Pahlavan, located in the northern-southern valley of Jajarm in North Khorasan Province, serves as a valuable example for studying inter-regional cultural trends during the Late Neolithic and Transitional Chalcolithic periods. The present research used a descriptive-analytical methodology to investigate the pottery assemblage retrieved from Tepe Pahlavan in Northeastern Iran during the Neolithic and Transitional Chalcolithic periods. The study aims to classify and analyze the pottery within both the local and regional contexts to comprehend the pottery traditions prevalent during the aforementioned periods. The pottery assemblage of the site indicates its association with the Eastern Sange Chakhmaq and other Neolithic sites from the Shahrud Plain. Furthermore, the presence of the cultural tradition of Cheshmeh-Ali in the settlement sequence of sites during the Transitional Chalcolithic period demonstrates regional and inter-regional cultural interactions. The pottery of this period at Tepe Pahlavan shares common technical features with the pottery assemblages of the Central Iranian Plateau and exhibits less diversity in form and decoration. In summary, the Pahlavan site reflects regional cultural interactions during the Neolithic period and inter-regional interactions during the early phase of the Transitional Chalcolithic period in northeastern Iran with the Central Plateau and the northern regions of the Kopet Dag.

Muawiya, who proclaimed himself the avenger of Uthman, established the Levant (Bilad al-Sham) as the base for his political agenda. This allowed the Levant to emerge as the stronghold of opposition against the caliphate of Imam Ali (AS), paving the way for the rise of the Umayyad dynasty. However, historical accounts suggest that the cohesiveness of the Levantine community during this period may not have been as absolute as commonly portrayed. This research, employing a descriptive-analytical approach, examined the composition of the Levantine population and their positions in the Alavi-Umayyad dispute. By focusing on the division of tribes into the Qahtani and Adnani groups, the study categorized the behavior of the Levantine people into 4 distinct groups: companions, semi-companions, neutrals, and non-companions. One of the key findings was identification of groups that were either not obedient to Muawiya from the outset or later separated from him, despite the initial companionship. This challenged the prevalent narrative of a unified and unwavering Levantine support for Muawiya's cause. This categorization could aid in analyzing the nuanced performance of the Levantine population and reconciling the scattered and conflicting historical accounts. Moreover, the research revealed that in all the mentioned groups, the Qahtani tribes were dominant, shedding light on the internal dynamics and power structures within the Levantine community during this pivotal period of Islamic history. These insights can contribute to further research on Muawiya's policies, the Alavi-Umayyad conflict, and the sociopolitical landscape of the Levant.

The discussion of the typology of mosque architecture in different parts of Iran is a topic that has been studied by many researchers. In this article, in addition to the typology of Local mosques, factors affecting the formation and development of the remaining mosques in Borujerd (17 mosques) from the 12th to the 14th centuries AH have been investigated. Boroujerd has a temperate climate with cold winters, and its architecture, like other regions, is under the influence of the local climate and environment. In so doing, as a result of adaptation to the local environment, specific local architectural characteristics are observed in Boroujerd. This research is based on the assumption that local mosques in Boroujerd are built according to the local climatic conditions and based on local architecture. To infer the factors influencing the formation and development of the local mosques, the architectural components and physical and spatial characteristics of the mosques are examined and studied. The questions are as follows: What are the distinctive structural characteristics of the mosques in the Borujerd region? And how could they be grouped? In the construction of such mosques, how has adaptation to the local environment been considered? How have these mosques been influenced by the local architecture? Research information has been collected based on the library method and field survey using the descriptive-analytical and comparative methods. The result of the research has shown that the types of local mosques in Borujerd, although in the general definition, are in the continuation of the archetypes of mosque architecture, but under the influence of local climatic conditions and the local environment, as well as the influence of native architecture. They have distinctive features compared to other mosques, so they could be grouped into two types of local mosques: winter and summer. They are also divided into several categories according to their architectural features. Among them, we could mention mosques with stone and brick-pillared naves.

Considering the rich history of Iran in the field of art and architecture, delightful doors with unique characteristics are found, each of which is derived from cultural, religious, and social interactions. Typology, recognition, and reproduction of antecedent motifs and designs in traditional doors could revive cultural identity in contemporary cities. Doors and windows are influential factors in shaping buildings in Iranian architecture. Having a thousand-year-old history with the presence of skilled blacksmiths and carpenters, Masouleh has treasured beautiful gates being formed in various buildings at different parts of the town. The purpose of the research is to determine the typology and knowledge of the types of traditional doors in the historical town of Masouleh. The research method is field and library studies. At first, 32 ancient doors in Masouleh were selected for field studies. In the next step, library and interview methods were used to identify the components and designs of the doors. The research results show that the doors in Masouleh are of three types: building, religious, residential and commercial. The doors of the religious buildings are classified into three levels: woodcarving, Girih, tiles, and geometric motifs. The most important factors shaping the decorations of religious doors is the praise of God, which is presented in the form of Islamic, animal, and calligraphy motifs. The doors of the residential buildings are classified into three levels: plain with no design, the ones with geometric design, and Girih tiles. Residential doors are formed based on a combination of the beautiful art of metalwork and woodwork, respect for the needs of the users, and the religious beliefs of the people of Masouleh. The doors of commercial buildings in Masouleh are in the form of collapsible and Girih tile designs. The flexible structure of the collapsible doors of commercial buildings allows for maximum coverage of the openings and visibility of handicrafts. The results indicate that the neighborhoods of Masjed-Bar, Khaneh-Bar, and Keshe-sar have the most classic traditional doors.

In archaeological terminology, small portable objects made of stone, mud, bone, and metal, usually 1-5 cm in diameter, with carved patterns are called seals. This tool probably had different functions in prehistoric times, but the economic function of the seal is more important. The greatest variety of cylindrical and metal mesh seals can be seen in the Bronze Age. The present article seeks to answer the following questions: What are the characteristics of Tepe Hissar seals in terms of typology and iconography? Are the typological and iconographical changes of the seals of Tepe Hissar related to the arrival of other cultures in this region? Have the cultural and religious evolutions of the native people of the region caused the changes in seals? This research is of documentary type and based on the descriptive-analytical method, which was carried out with the aim of typology and iconography of the seals discovered from Tepe Hissar, Damghan. The seals of the Hissar I and II periods have been often discovered from grave contexts and the seals of the Hissar III period have been often discovered from architectural contexts. This study shows that most of the seals are of the stamp type and most of the engraved patterns are geometric. The seals of Tepe Hissar were made of various stones and materials, some of which were local and some imported from other regions. This shows the extent of commercial and economic activities in Tepe Hissar.

In the present research, the gravestones of the Islamic period in the Borkhar region, located in the north of Isfahan have been studied with the aim of identifying and classifying the types of species, in order to answer the following questions, in a descriptive-analytical way and with a typological approach.1- From a morphological point of view, which types of carved and inscribed tombstones existed in Borkhar? 2- What are the structural and temporal characteristics of these species in comparison with each other and in comparison with common species in other regions? 3- What is the quantity and distribution of types of gravestones in the settlements of the region and what information does it contain? Based on the results of this research, 404 tombstones were identified in the settlements and ancient sites of Borkhar. This tombstone belongs to the Safavid to Qajar periods and includes 5 species, 7 main subspecies and 29 subspecies. Although the placement in this typology has been considered; Despite this, the shape structure is the most important criterion for this division, and in the next levels, criteria such as the methods of composing the arrays, the type and the manner of the dimensions and volumes have been considered. The main species include Varaghei, Sandoghi, Ketabi (including 4 main subspecies), horizontal Mehrabi (including 3 main subspecies) and Motbagh and correspond to samples obtained from other regions of Iran. The most common species are the Balindar, the Ketabi-e Bozorg, the Mehrabi-e Jonaghi and the Sandoghi, respectively, and the two types of Mehrabi-e Helali and Motbagh have the least use. The Sandoghi species was the most common species in the Safavid period and the the Balindar species and the Ketabi-e Bozorg was the most common species in the Qajar period. According to the results obtained between the identified species and the temporal, geographical and spatial conditions of the settlements in the region, close relationships can be seen. Vertical types are more prevalent in mountainous areas and horizontal types are prevalent in low and flat areas of the region.

One of the important sites of the Seleucid period in Iran is Laodicea in Hamadan province. This site was subjected to systematic survey and archaeological excavations during the years 2004, 2010 and 2021; A part of the cultural data of the excavation determined that the site was reused in the later especially the Islamic periods. In this article, Islamic glazed pottery obtained from three seasons of archaeological excavations has been carefully studied and a comprehensive classification has been prepared. Considering that the importance of the site was more in the historical period, conducting this research can help in clarifying the status of the site in the Islamic period as well as the position of Hamedan in the production of medieval Islamic period. The present research has been done by field studies (description, photography, design, classification and typology) and library studies (comparative studies and relative chronology). The results of the research show that this region was of special importance in the medieval Islamic period due to its location on the highway from Baghdad to Khorasan, and this factor caused the creation of many cultural connections with other regions, the evidence of which has appeared in the characteristic pottery of this region.

The typology can also include micro issues on a small scale of architecture to metropolitan issues. According to the changes that have taken place in the last century, historical houses are severely subject to destruction, while they constitute the major part of the fabric of the historical cities of Iran. Investigations show that so far not many studies have been done on these houses, thinking about them due to matching the needs of Iranian people and the construction environment can be beneficial in reaching a suitable housing model. The current research is a qualitative approach and in terms of theoretical purpose. The research strategy has a historical method and the research method is descriptive-analytical in terms of the type of results. The main issue of this article is how the culture of the people of the region affects the formation of the types of houses in Sanandaj during the first Pahlavi period. Therefore, with a cultural-physiological look at the houses of Ahmadzadeh, Amir Asefi and Mesri, the most obvious characteristic affecting the formation of their species was extracted. The purpose of this research is to study and understand the relationship between the architecture of houses in Sanandaj and the culture of the Kurdistan region, to know the architectural types of Sanandaj houses in the first Pahlavi period from the cultural point of view of the Kurdistan region, and to analyze the characteristics of the existing types of houses in Sanandaj based on the reading (study and analysis) of the buildings. The results of this research show that the percentage of open and closed spaces in the historical houses of Sanandaj indicate the formation of the body of the houses, and also factors such as maintaining privacy, culture and customs are among the main indicators. And the culture of Ahmadzadeh, Amir Asefi and Mesri houses, which shows the preservation of social-physical identity and local culture in Sanandaj city.