آواشناسی

Phonetic processes are the result of the effect of sounds on each other and the transformation of consonance that occurs when they are combined in the speech chain. These processes are carried out according to linguistic and literary rules, such as conformity to the law, the principle of less effort, analogy, poetic necessity, simplification, stylization of speech. The purpose of this research is to investigate phonetic processes in Hamdullah Mostofi"s book Nezhat al-Qulob.

The method of this research is descriptive-analytical based on the method of document analysis and content analysis, and the statistical population is the book Nozha al-Qulob by Hamdallah Mostofi.

Nozhat al-Qolub is one of the historical-geographical works that, in addition to providing important information about the different regions of Iran of that period, has outstanding literary and linguistic features. The grammatical and lexical structure of the book Nozhat al-Qolub has been heavily influenced by the Pahlavi and Farsi languages, and the author has paid great attention to these phonetic processes throughout the book.

Phonetic process in the book Nozha al-Qulob in the forms; Abdal (substitution), al-Yut (simplification), tarkhim (abbreviation), al-Khalb are used. The change of vowels is in two forms: change in consonants and change in adjacent and non-adjacent vowels, reduction in the form of initial, middle and final reduction (reduction) and the phonetic process of addition or increase (addition) also in the form of addition at the beginning of the word: add in the middle of the word: add It is at the end of the word. In fact, the phonetic transformations in the meaning of reduction, abdal, tarkhim, heart, and carving in Hamdallah Mostofi"s Nazha al-Qulob have various reasons, the most important of which is to simplify and avoid the heaviness of pronunciation.

The Former Dialect of Shirāz is among a few New Iranian dialects of which considerable written texts are remained from 5th till 11th century A.H. Sa'diʼs Mosallasāt (7th century A.H.), a trilingual ghazal of Hafez (8th century A.H.), the Divān of Shams Pos-e Nāser (8th century A.H.) and the books Kān-e Malāhat and Se Goftār by Shāh Dā'i Shirāzi (9th century A.H.) and Bos'haq At'ema (9th century A.H.) are typical samples of this linguistic variety. The Former Dialect of Shirāz (called Shirāzi or Sherazi) has been changed in phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic levels in its evolution from Middle Shirāzi. The authors of this article try to compare the phonetic and phonological characteristics of this linguistic variant with Middle Persian as well as introducing the most important phonetic changes from Middle Persian to The Former Shirāzi and also the major phonetic processes of Shirāzi based on the works of Shāh Dā’i Shirāzi.

The present study aims to investigate the difficulties of word stress in German prefixed words for Persian students of German language major at Isfahan University from the perspective of contrastive linguistics and error analysis. German and Persian are syllabic languages in which one or more than one syllable of a word is pronounced with more emphasis. The prefixed Persian words are mostly pronounced without stress; however, Some German prefixed words are enunciated with stress, and in some cases, the word stress has a distinguishing characteristic in which the change in the stress leads to a variation in the meaning of the word or sentence. The lack of commonality in phonetic rules between the two languages results in errors in some language learners leading to disruption in communicating with the audience in real situations. In order to analyze the controlling factors two groups of students received assignments to pronounce words and sentences containing various prefixes in German. The obtained results indicated that in the junior students who did not master in the related phonetic rules, the most important cause of error was linguistic interference from the mother tongue and the tendency to stress the final syllables of the prefixed words. The number of errors in the senior and graduated students is much less than that of the first group due to their familiarity with the phonetic rules, Moreover, in this group of students, the major reasons included language interference, overgeneralization, the lack of fixation of rules, fossilization, and wrong mental hypothesizing.

Using names of "Alan"/ "Aas”, that are a phonetic form of "Arya", about the Ossetes, indicates that they are speakers of "Iron dialect". The Ossetic language belongs to the Iranian group of Indo-European languages. The current written form of the Ossetic language with the Cyrillic alphabet dates back to 1844, and was founded by A.M. Shegren, and later V.F. Miller, completed it. The basis of entering the field of linguistic research about Ossetic is being familiar with this language and learning the correct way to read it. Therefore, in this study, we intend to make familiar Iranian readers and linguists with the vowels and consonants and phonetic system of the Ossetic. In this direction, issues such as voicelessness, metathesis, place of stress etc. have also been considered by the authors. The purpose of this study is to provide a platform for further research in the Ossetic language as a branch of Iranian languages. In the present work, Russian has become a tool for Iranian linguists to know about the linguistic research done about Ossetic language. The results showed that the alphabetic system and phonetic signs of the Ossetic can be very different compared to the phonetic system of other languages.

Persian-English bilingual linguistics thesaurus has not been developed yet. The linguistics Thesaurus is used in organizing and indexing scientific document information, standardizing vocabulary, searching and retrieving information in linguistic databases, and research related to linguistics and computational linguistics. The most important challenge in producing and compiling a Persian-English bilingual linguistics thesaurus is designing a concept map of linguistics. Finding suitable equivalents in Persian for English terms as well as the existence of different views and schools in the field of this science is one of the difficulties of this research. The presence of Persian language linguists in different fields of linguistics and the existence of numerous English and Persian sources in the field of linguistics, as well as knowledge and experience of designing concept maps and compiling a thesaurus based on it at Irandac Research Institute, was a great opportunity to designed and compiled a conceptual map of linguistics in a general level . This map was designed using specialized English and Persian terms in the field of linguistics and according to the divisions of linguistics, so that in other projects, a Persian-English bilingual linguistics thesaurus could be developed based on it.

Every language is a style in which it affects the soul of the listener or audience by choosing and arranging words. Accordingly, orators, writers and scholars in this field have provided criteria for measuring the value of lectures, and in the meantime, the Holy Quran has been considered the best and supreme model of this important and all the methods used in it are a great example of eloquence and rhetoric. The music of the verses of Surah Takwir has a wonderful theory and communicates very precisely with the meanings and purposes of the verses. The accompaniment of words, the phonetic and semantic system, as well as the choice of words that have been purposefully targeted in the sentences and phrases of Surah Takwir in such a way that each word is placed in its place, its words have eloquence. And are free from rhetorical flaws; The arrangement of words and phrases and their order and music, with the meaning and concept of the verses, is proportionate and harmonious in such a way that by reading it you can make a picture of the events on the eve of the Day of Judgment and after. Therefore, the present study examines the phonology and simple, syntactic and rhetorical structures of Surah Takwir. The aim of writing now is to analyze and study the phonetic and syntactic and rhetorical structures of Surah Takwir in a descriptive and library way

The lexicon of a language, together with its grammar, constitute the foundation of that language. Meanwhile, the pronunciation and the particular accent to each language also play a significant role in shaping their unique structure. Pronunciation and accent are usually the first indicator of whether a speaker belongs to the native speaker community of the language. Frequent incorrect pronunciations or unusual accents can obstruct the conveyance of what is intended and extremely impact the success of the communication. The interfering effect of pronunciation patterns that are common to one’s mother tongue is one of the most important factors affecting the quality of pronunciation of a foreign language. Acquiring the correct pronunciation thus requires familiarity with the phonetics and phonology of one’s mother tongue as well as that of the foreign language particularly in contrast to each other, so that the situations which cause interference in the phonetic structure of the foreign language are understood better and consciously considered when pronouncing the phones and words of the foreign language.

One of the places of articulation which most languages do not tend to produce consonant is the position of uvular. In some of the limited languages which have consonants in this place, they only have a stop consonant. In Persian, most grammarians and linguists agree to Standard Persian in which there is only one uvular stop. This uvular stop phoneme is a voiced uvular stop consonant has produced different allophones in different context. Nevertheless, this situation in standard Persian of some of the Persian dialects seems there are two uvular consonants. The present study tries to assess this important issue by studying the acoustic characteristics of this uvular stop consonant in Neyriz dialect. The data available in this research is dialogue speech which has been analyzed using the PRAAT software. The present study shows that in this dialect, there are two phonemes /G/ and /q/ which have been noticed in some periods of Persian language development.

Syllable as a unit of phonetics has different definitions. A simple definition defines syllable as a unit consisting of a few phonemes produced in a single exhale. Of course, definitions of syllable is of dispute among phonetician and its structure bears similarities and differences from one language to another. Record of interference and friction between Arabic and Persian and its consequences particularly in terms of phonetics and vocabulary signifies the need for analysis and comparison of syllables’ structure in the two mentioned languages. The article aims at compare the phonetic structure of phoneme, its similarities and differences in addition to the rules of syllable in both Arabic and Persian.The results signify that there are two types of phonemes used in Persian, where one is almost lost in Arabic and the other one is only used in special circumstances. The syllabic system of the two languages is also of considerable similarities and differences. This research is not only a comparative study but we hope that the findings of this comparison to be effective in determining the functional differences of the phonemes, including the identification of the phonological development of the words involved, as well as the differences in rhythm, meter, and poetic music between the two languages.

The literal rhetoric (scheme) is a most important branch of Persian language aesthetics. The purpose of the knowledge is studying and evaluating the verbal music with applying the instruments that called Ornaments. Ornament as is obvious from its name is all devices that writers using them for making their art fine. With historical skimming over Badi` books, we understand our rhetoricians have gave and dedicated useless names and titles to the literal ornaments rather than analyzing the musical beauties of language. The author has used a historical method and content analysis approach in his research. The sampling kind in this research is stratified sampling; i.e. the Persian Badi` books and linguistic and phonetic books from two old and new classes with regarding indicative criteria have been analyzed.
The author’s essential problem in this article is replying to the question:How the literal ornaments can be analyzed with scientific and measurable principles?
In this article the ornaments below are evaluated:Movashshah, Moamma, Mosahhaf, Khifa, Motazalzel, Raqta, Mo`jam, Tanafor, Hazf, Moqatta`, Movassal, Vase` osh-shafatayn, Vasel osh-shafatayn, Heja, Touzi` (Tekrar) (Hamhorufi, Hamsedayi, Tekrar-e Heja), The natural relationship between letters and words with theme of poem.
The author has reported his findings in below items:1. The impact of Arabic language and its phonetic rules in Persian Badi` books is very remarkable and sometimes caused faults of Persian writers.
2. The examples that mentioned as samples of literal ornaments are very rare and exceptional.
3. The musical repetition of phonemes and sounds and the concepts associated from them is the only reason of beauty of literal ornaments.
4. In translating the foreign ornaments to Persian has not been used enough accuracy.
5. Occasionally, in explaining the repetition ornament the phonetic and syllabic structure of Persian language has not been the analytic basis.
6. Exploiting linguistics and phonetics provide the necessary criteria for scientific evaluation of literal ornaments.

Phonetic analysis of Arabic language has been begun with the publication of Khalil –Ibn– Ahmad's book, "Al-Ayn", in the second century A.H. The presented paper is a research on description of Arabic phonemes and vocal organs according to phonetic opinions of Khalil –Ibn– Ahmad. This great literary man as a founder of phonology in Arabic language influences ortheopy researchers in later ages and helps to presentation of descriptive phonetics. Finally we conclude that Quran ortheopy have been accomplished in the context of Arabic linguistic.

The plenty and variety of the Geminated Words indicates that certainly Gemination appears in the speech and speakers of the Persian language know this. The obvious reason is that Persian speakers whether young or old produce Gemination systematically and they have no problem in producing, it but there is hesitation if the sing of Gemination in writing is a cause of reading the stressed words fluently and correctly. The similar voices in some words are pronounced Gemination and in some without geminating, however their voice structure are the same. Generally geminating has an important part in the Persian language because it is the result of a method of language phonology that according to a unexceptionable method and unwontedly is used by the speakers. This article is written according to the library's method research and presented both descriptively & analytically.

Phonetics was initially made the subject of diversified range of sciences, and attracted many researchers, who were under the influence of Arabic – Islamic cultural system. In the meantime, syntacticians and grammarians dealing with conjugation and syntax issues inevitably encountered phonetically related points. For, these sciences, and in particular conjugation, had overlaps with phonetics in many issues and subjects. Ibn-e-Jenni was the first grammarian who allocated an independent book on phonetic subjects and discussed it as a distinct science. He used the linguistic term of "Elm-al-Aswat (Phonetics)" for referring to this science. The present article is an endeavor for extracting Ibn-e-Jenni's viewpoints and doctrine regarding Arabic language phones by studying his works as available, and for studying considers that Ibn-e-Jenni's method in his phonetical studies is descriptive. It further demonstrates that despite notwithstanding paucity of facilities and tools for phone analysis, the conclusions reached by him on description of phones are so advanced that they do match to a large extent with those of the contemporary phoneticians who are equipped with advanced laboratories and instruments.

Jan Baudouin de Courtenay is best-known for his views on the distinction between phonetic and phonemic analysis of sounds. His theory of the phonemic and phonetic alternations has lead to the modern phonological schools of linguistics. De Courtenay was in fact a pioneer of the modern linguistics who anticipated most of the basic concepts of structuralist theories. In particular, his formative influence on modern phonology is generally acknowledged. However, unfortunately, his name is missed in the history of linguistics as the one who first introduced the most basic concepts in this science. This paper, deals with his beliefs and achievements in modern linguistics.

The investigation of phonemes frequency in a given language can be a means in description of the language. Studying the differences in the occurrences of phonological segments of Persian, the study has tried to indicate that the frequency of phonemes would be a good means for the description of phonemes. In other words the study has indicated that minimal pair is not enough to distinguish phonemes. In the study 60399 occurrences of Persian Phonological segments taken from the spoken (30326 segments)and written(30073 segments)Persian texts with similar genres and styles, have been recorded, transcribed and counted.The study has showed that there is no significant difference in the frequency of phonemes in spoken and written Persian in general. Mean while there are some remarkable differences among the occurrences of some phonemes in the two forms. The study has also indicated that, in general, the consonants and vowels articulated in front part of oral cavity are more frequent in spoken language and those articulated in back of it are more frequent in written one.

Traditionally, different Kinds of paronomasia, based on phone similarities, have been brought under discussion in rhetorical books. Predecessors were not able to explain phone similarities scientifically; therefore, they got engaged in long controversial adding anything. Linguistics, particularly its two branches of phonemics and phonetics, can solve the problem. This paper determines to join linguistics to literature to explain phone similarities scientifically and present a framework for discussing paronomasia in Persian literature.