ادبیات تطبیقی

Imagology, as an approach in comparative literature, delves into the formation and representation of the "Other" within the framework of cultural interactions, offering new insights into the understanding of identities and intercultural differences. The present study undertakes an imagological analysis of the representation of the "Other" in A Girl in Paris by Shusha Guppy. Utilizing Daniel-Henri Pageaux's theories of imagology, this research explores the reactions of the "observer" when faced with the culture and society of Paris and seeks to determine whether Guppy's representations fall into the common traps of stereotypes and prejudices or she transcends these limitations. According to these theories, there are three discernible perspectives in confronting the "Other": mania, phobia, and philia. The findings suggest that Guppy's gaze aligns closely with the philia perspective, where neither the foreign culture is deemed superior nor inferior to that of the observer, but rather a mutual and equal exchange between the observer and the observed is established. Through her long-term lived experience in Paris, Guppy has distanced herself from the conventional clichés found in the travelogues of the Qajar era, engaging in a process of demythologization. Conducted using a descriptive-analytical method, this research focuses on various aspects of social and cultural life such as student life, the educational system, the housing crisis, and the arts, providing a deeper exploration of the "Self" and the "Other." This study concludes that Guppy not only offers a more realistic portrayal of Parisian society but also attains a deeper understanding of her own identity through these cultural encounters.

In recent years, the comparison and matching of literary works of different ethnicities and nations have attracted the attention of researchers as well as readers and critics and, these comparative studies have provided a suitable platform for evaluating the structural and content commonalities and similarities of two or more works from different languages and cultures. The main goal of comparative research is to identify the theme and content of literary works and, then, an approach to criticize them. In this regard, the present study tries to compare the fundamental elements of the story in the two Persian and German works, the 22nd story of of Golestan written by Saadi and the story of poor Heinrich, written by Hartmann von Aue, to find out the similarities and differences between them, in dealing with a single topic, and reveal its cause. Investigation and analyzing the themes of these two works like writing style, perspective, character, and characterization can considerably help in understanding the society and social environment of the writers' era. The results of this study show that despite the common thread, each author has reached different results. This research has been done in a library and document research method with a comparative approach and from the point of view of the American school (similarities and contrasts).

Sohrab Sepehri and Marry Oliver are two poets created valuable poems and had a great impact on the poetry of their country. They have sought human perfection and truth in their works by difference in culture and language and due to their common life experiences, they have created poems with relatively similar content. Of course, this issue can be seen among the works of many poets who have similar thinking and worldview. The present research has studied naturalism in their poems in a comparative manner in four parts: poem form, semantic themes, semiotics, and arrays in descriptive-analytical methods. Except the poem form, attention to nature is visible in three other parts their works. Sepehri considers nature as a living being and invites all people to return to it. On the other hand, Oliver's poems are mostly written in relation to nature and inspired by it. The results obtained among the components show a higher percentage of commonalities in the component of semantic themes in Oliver's poem compared to Sepehri's

Many renowned Persian poets have consistently captured the attention of literary scholars and researchers worldwide. Among these poets, Shams al-Din Muhammad Hafez Shirazi stands out. From the realm of Arabic literature, Ibrahim Amin al-Shawarbi and Ali Abbas Zoleikha, both poets and writers, have shown special reverence for Hafez. Each of these two writers has interpreted significant aspects of Hafez’s poetry and expressed them in Arabic. In this research, we delve into their interpretations of Ghazal 402 (based on Ghani Qazvini’s edition), and compare their perspectives. The findings reveal that while Amin al-Shawarbi’s interpretations, often written in prose, are more eloquent due to his long residence in Shiraz, Ali Abbas Zoleikha’s reception of the emotional elements, expressed both in poetry and in prose, is more captivating and influential than Amin al-Shawarbi’s interpretations.

"Comparative literature, being an interdisciplinary field, studies the literary heritage of different nations. In this field, the scope of literature transcends national and local boundaries to observe the differences and commonalities between views and ideas of poets from two nations in comparative way. Consequently, comparative literature holds a prominent place in the world of literature and is expressed through various poetic forms. Sonnet is one the most important types of lyrical poetry and has had a significant role in the evolution and creativity of poetic content in past literary eras. Despite its great diversity, contemporary poets in Persian and Arabic literature have embraced Sonnet, pouring their emotions into and expressing their feelings through . Poets Mahmoud Al-Musawi and Sayyid Hasan Al-Husseini are among the prominent contemporary poets in this field. They have embraced this poetic form and composed Sonnets in its three types: mystical Sonnet, love Sonnet, and religious Sonnet. Therefore, this study aims, through a comparative methodology within framework of comparative literature and the descriptive-analytical approach, to present a comparative study the content of the Sonnets of poets Al-Musawi and Hasan Al-Husseini. research results showed that the poets, in an artistic and poetic manner, addressed themes such as 'divine love, reaching the eternal beloved, describing love with blood and fire, supplication to attain union, and the originality of love' mystical and love Sonnets. However, Hasan Al-Husseini's revolutionary orientation gives his poems distinctive character, setting them apart from his Arabic counterpart, and this distinction reaches its peak in religious Sonnet

Khaghani, this self-confident singer does not consider anyone worthy of competition among his contemporaries. And he says: "I have a conflict with our predecessors." Therefore, he challenges the king of Arab poets, Junduh bin Hujr al-Kindi, known as Imru' al-Qais, to fight. He challenges"Qefa Nabak" poetry. It is clear that the examination of such a claim should be done in the Arabic poems of Khaqani, this bilingual singer. So, in this research, in order to gain a new understanding of the character of the two poets, we will use the French method of comparative literature to evaluate Khaqani's "Bakt-e-Rabba" and "Qefa Nabak" of Amrual-Qis. And we try to answer this question, how can Khaqani's view be evaluated in dealing with the poem "Qefa Nabak"? In order to get the answer to the above question, one should first explore the weight, rhyme, language and vocabulary in the upper layer. Then, in the infrastructure, crying over atlal and daman, its time and place in the sorrow of the singers, how to deal with the place and why, the style of each poet in self-praise, the singers' attitude towards morning and night, and finally, the connection between Khaqani and Amrualqis with the phenomenon. We have checked.

Before receiving the independent nature in the academic and scientific context, Children’s and Young Adult Literature was a Defeated discourse in front of the literature that faces adult audiences. Adults refuse the possibility and acceptance of literature specific to children as an independent knowledge and they consider adult literature to be dominant over Children’s and Young Adult Literature. the exploration of new angles of this field became prominent with transition of changes and transformations to the independence of knowledg. Children’s and Young Adult Literature with its special audience-study, in Interdisciplinary relationship with comparative literature, makes Comparative Children’s and Young Adult Literature. The newness of this field in the global arena shows the lack of resources and the necessity of theoretical research. This research deals with the condition of this field and its territory.

The Comparative Children’s and Young Adult Literature, in various theoretical topics that lead to the formation of the framework and understanding of this knowledge, has a Interdisciplinary and Transtextual relationship with comparative literature, it can be studied in independent researches. An interdisciplinary approach and intertextual and comparative analysis with a descriptive method of content analysis and analysis of theoretical sources is considered.

In this study, the concept of Comparative Children’s and Young Adult Literature in the academic context of Iran, Interdisciplinary and the formulation of the Territoriy of Researchs of this field are built in the intertextual and comparative shadow of comparative literature and the proposed fields of O’Sullivan, to reduce the theoretical void of Conceptology, Problem-Creating and Territory-Research of this nascent field for future researches.

In another research, the researchers looked at the fixed, variable and semi-variable indexs of this knowledge to help the research in this field in Problem-Analysis and Problem-Creating. Considering the situation of the Comparative Children’s and Young Adult Literature in the university and its scope of research, it is important that researchers consider the special nature and scope of research in this field compared to the comparative literature of adults.

This article explores spatial and temporal metaphors in Bijan Najdi's works, analyzing their role in representing characters' lived experiences in the context of globalization and migration. Findings indicate that Najdi creatively employs spatial metaphors like "home," "border," and nameless, unfamiliar places to evoke a sense of alienation, instability, and dislocation in the reader. These metaphors reflect the social and psychological impacts of globalization, transforming the concept of place into an unpredictable and insecure space. On the other hand, Najdi uses temporal metaphors, portraying time as fragmented and disjointed moments to convey uncertainty and confusion. Such temporal metaphors resonate with the modern human experience in confronting cultural and social changes, especially within the scope of migration and globalization. This study highlights the interplay between spatial and temporal metaphors as tools for representing the identity and emotional challenges of characters in Najdi's works, demonstrating how this blend of metaphors allows readers to empathize with characters' experiences in a globalized and migratory world. Adopting a comparative literature and cross-cultural theoretical approach, this study offers an in-depth understanding of the impacts of globalization and migration on Persian literary structures. Findings suggest that Najdi's works, by utilizing these metaphors, intricately portray the existential and psychological complexities faced by individuals in contemporary times.

World literature investigates literary works that circulate beyond their cultures and demonstrates what like-but-unlike is. It considers a certain motif and sees how it represents its cultural aspects. . The Jungian archetype of the bird is the common thread that has been analyzed in this comparative study. Bird’s flight sheds light on metaphysical ascendance and transcendence. Moreover, the bird archetype conveys meanings associated with death, rebirth, awareness, consciousness, enlightenment, and wisdom. This article compares the archetype of birds in the poetry of Attar’s The Conference of the Birds (1177), Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (1992), and Agbemabiese’s “Sankofa” (2008). The reason for such a choice is that, although they belong to different ages and literary heritages, all three portray a journey toward an individual’s Self-perfection.  These poets utilize the bird archetype to manifest how Simurgh, Albatross, and Sankofa, reveal their archetypal meanings in Persian, English, and African cultures. By a comparative method based on Jung’s archetypal “process of individuation”, the bird is a uniting archetype, that represents the “Self” in Jung’s terminology. Binding the poetry of these nations demonstrates that through a self-realization journey, the individual can achieve perfection or become one with the whole.

 Langston Hughes is one of the most important black American poets, who is called the "King of Black Poets." In his works, he describes the aspects of black people life and opposes injustices and racial discrimination exercised against them in order to realize their civil rights. In thisresearch, some of the commoncomponents of hispoetry are compared with those of ParvinEtesami. Thepurpose of thepresent study is to explain that two poets, attempt to renarrate some parts of thebehaviors and epistemological values in connection to different social classes, especially for the lower or subaltern social strata. Thefindings show that Hughesand ParvinEtesami, due to theirsocial tendencies and ideologies, have paid attention to the wishes and aspirations of the subaltern. Theirreaction to class differences stems from the thinking they have developed. Hughes'spoems is filled with the reflection of racist attitudes whosesocial policies consider theimprovement of thelives of the subaltern as a great danger. However, as per Parvin Etesami's poem, in an Iranian society where racist thinking does not prevail, thedeprivation of individuals is justified by ideological analyses and attributing the situation to fate and destiny.

Comparative literature is a contemporary science or research field that focuses on the comparison, examination, and analysis of literary works and, in its broader sense, the artistic works of different nations and cultures. It explores the similarities and differences among these works, as well as the literary and cultural influences and exchanges between nations. This discipline aims to see and recognize the "self" in the mirror of the "other." This issue has prompted literary critics to study literary works in relation to each other in order to achieve an evolutionary and comparative understanding of the signs within the texts. On the other hand, the "Koush-nama" narrates the tale of "Koush Pil-dandan," a dark and demonic hero in Iranian epics. A comparative analysis of this tale reveals the frequency of similarities between the narrative of Koush and that of Alexander the Great in non-Iranian mythological-historical accounts. This encourages critics to explore the layers and indicators of kinship between these two narratives and their main foundational themes. Therefore, this research has sought to discover the system of signification between the two texts using a descriptive-analytical method and comparative study. The findings of this research indicate that these two stories, due to their alignment and overlap in areas such as characterization, action, emotional states, and intertwining narratives, are undoubtedly part of a system of mutual influence. This influence from the narrative of Alexander to Koush is particularly significant, suggesting that in various aspects, the character of Koush can be seen as a transformed reflection of the non-Iranian figure of Alexander. Furthermore, this narrative can be interpreted as a selective metamorphosis derived from a collection of data found in popular literature and the written accounts of Alexander

The review and analysis of confrontation/ interaction of thinkers thought and the artistic experience owners is subject that in set of literary researches can be considered –in spite of cultural differs - underlie of better understanding of discourse thinking of authors. Mewlana and Kazantzakis in this ground are two important thinkers of Islam and Christianity world that can be analyzed their texts in various aspects by attitude of comparative. One of the most important attitude, was thought variety in the selfish field especially beliefs, feelings and emotions, desires  ground that present article analyze and scrutinize this problem. Writer in this article analyzed the most significant common elements of texts mewlana and Kazantzakis emphasis on character natures on one hand and the most obvious thoughts, emotions, desires elements on the other hand by analytical- critical method.  The results of this research shows in spite of uncommon attitude, both of them figure on principle of endless prosperity  and happiness and pay attention to selfish ground by life prescriptions by regard to different dimensions.

Comparative literature is one of the attractive and very valuable and useful trends in the field of literary criticism, and because the methods of research in comparative literature are different and numerous, there are different schools; In such a way that each researcher chooses the appropriate school or method based on his research method. With the emergence of the theory of reception in the last decades of the 19th century, more attention was paid to the role of the reader and the approach of central perception or reception was formalized. One of the research topics in the field of perception theory is the perception of Persian poetry by Arabic language writers and artists. In this context, Hafez Shirazi has attracted the attention of writers and researchers in the field of literature in other languages, and Arabic-speaking writers have a significant contribution in understanding Hafez's poetry. Among the writers who have paid special attention to Hafez's poetry and presented their views in the form of poetry and prose are Ebrahim Amin Al-Shwarabi and Ali Abbas Zulikha. In this research, two writers' interpretations of Hafez's Ghazal 175 are presented and analyzed and compared, and finally, the writer's opinion is presented as the final opinion. In general, it can be said that Al-Shwarabi's interpretation of verses is more comprehensive than Zuleikha's, but in terms of emotions and feelings, Zuleikha's interpretation is superior to Al-Shwarabi's.

Persian novels of the 1930s and 1940s contain common themes such as loneliness, despair, disillusionment, fear and suspicion of personal and social relationships. Taghi Modarresi wroteYakolia & her solitude under the influence of the social-political atmosphere of the 1950, especially the situation after the coup of August 28, 1953. The traces of the author's familiarity with the Holy Book are also evident both in the writing style and in the content of this novel. The suffocating atmosphere of that time forced the writer to express his political concerns behind the myth and symbolic language. Mikhail Lermontov, a Russian poet, was also affected by the political and social situation of Russia, after the failure of the Decembrists' uprising, to escape from the disappointment and rejection of the intelligentsia, he took refuge in biblical myths and composed the narrative poem "Devil" which was a reflection of his frustrations. This research with a comparative approach between these two literary works in a descriptive-analytical method is important, because of The similarity of the social-political origins of the creation of these two works, the thoughts and opinions of the two authors, the common themes and the use of the creators of both works from the Old Testament and the story of "Tamar". This study shows that Modarresi and Lermontov used the story of Tamara in book of Creation and the second part of Samuel from the Bible to create their works, and common themes such as: despair, loneliness, rejection, protest, love, etc

 Balochi and Farsi are branches of the family of Iranian languages ​​that have been in the Iranian plateau and in the neighborhood with each other and interacted with each other throughout history. One of the functions of comparative literature is to investigate the effectiveness and influence between the literature of different languages. Considering the cultural predominance of Persian language and literature in Iran and its widespread influence among Muslim nations, its effects on Balochi literature and poetry are obvious and significant.. The influence of Balochi poets on Persian reached its peak in the second period of Balochi literature and the school of Mullahs. Mawlavi Abdollah Rawanbod is one of the famous Balochi poets and the last generation of poets of this school. He is a bilingual poet whose Balochi poems are influenced by Persian language and literature. This article has analyzed the Rawnbod’s balochi poems with a descriptive-analytical method and has shown this aspect in his Balochi poems. Rawanbod's poems are not uniform in terms of the influence of Persian language and literature. Even though his poems are strongly influenced by Persian poets like Saadi in terms of theme and fantasy elements, but in terms of language, they are fluent and original. And sometimes he is so influenced by Persian in writing Balochi poetry that the stanzas become Persian with a slight change or adjustment of a word, and even some of them can be considered completely Persian.

Image schema, a concept within cognitive semantics, posits that human experiences shape conceptual structures in the mind, which can be expressed through language. Therefore, tangible and embodied experiences within the conceptual system lead to the production of image schemas. Through a comparative lens, this study explores cognitive processes and structures related to image schemas in Persian and Kurdish children's poetry. Specifically, it investigates how these conceptual structures facilitate the understanding of abstract themes within the children's literature of these two languages. The findings indicate that the predominant image schemas in both Persian and Kurdish children's poems are movement-based. This prevalence can be attributed to the thematic content of the poems, where concepts such as play and work inherently involve movement and activity. Following this, the power image schema ranks second, reflecting educational frameworks that encourage children to overcome obstacles in pursuit of an ideal world. The volume schema ranks third, relating to the expression of abstract concepts such as sadness, peace, and happiness within tangible spatial containers.

 Comparative literature emerged as a separate and independent branch in literary studies in the 19th century. Considering the common language and proximity of the two nations of Iran and Afghanistan, it is natural to see similarities and differences in the contemporary literature of the two nations.
Iran and Afghanistan, in addition to the same language, also have many similarities in the field of culture and literature, and the history of social and literary developments of these two countries are similar and comparable in places. Processing the themes of the poem can introduce us to some aspects of the poet"s personality. This manifestation is not limited to political and geographical borders; therefore, in the field of comparative literature, it is possible to compare the concerns of poets to understand the similarities and differences of their personalities. Despite the same subjects in the poems of some poets, sometimes we think of two poets from two countries coming out of the same environment. In this article, we have tried to compare the poems of two famous and contemporary Afghan and Iranian poets, Malik Al-Shaara Abd al-Haq Bitab and Malik Al-Shaarai Bahar, in terms of social themes.

 This research has studied the poems of Bitab and Bahar with a descriptive analytical method, relying on a comparative approach and with regard to societies, and has searched for similarities in their poems. In this review, the social issues of the poems of these two poets are emphasized.

 According to the findings, what the poet or writer brings in his works is a direct or indirect reflection of the conditions of the society in which he lives. The contemporary era of Iran and Afghanistan, due to the ups and downs and transformations that arose from the arrival of modernity in the Middle East, had a greater and deeper impact on poets and writers than other periods. The constitutional period is a turning point in the history of the Iranian nation. In this period, literature also moved in step with the constitutionalists and rushed to their aid. Therefore, studying societies in contemporary literature, or examining contemporary literature with a sociological approach, helps to understand the situation of that era.

 Based on this, it was found that concepts such as patriotism, unity of Muslims, justice, freedom, the concept of progress and advancement are represented in the poetry of both poets in various forms. Due to the fact that Bitab has been less political compared to Bahar, political concepts have appeared less in his poetry.

Arab culture and history have always been the focus of Muslims everywhere after the arising of Islam, and Muslims have become familiar with Arab culture and history by learning Islamic sciences. One of the historical aspects of the Arabs has been the erosive tribal wars such as the war of "Basous" and "Dahes and Ghabra", which were mostly a reaction to their hard life and desert living. "Rand and Lashar" is also one of the popular epics of Balochistan, which has undeniable similarities to the Basous war during the Jahili period. This research, with a comparative historical approach and content analysis method, expresses the historical similarities of these two epics and wars. The hypothesis of the research is based on the principle that Rend and Lashar's saga is in some cases influenced by the Besous war between the two tribes of Bakr and Taghlib in the Jahili, and the similar climate and social structure and moral characteristics have paved the way for this influence. The result of the research, proving this hypothesis, shows that the Basous war and Rend and Lashar's saga were ignited by killing the camels of "Basous" and "Gohar" and these two women were the central characters in these wars. The other side of this impact is the causes of these wars, in which revenge and supporting the guest are the main motivations of both wars.

This research examined two semantic and linguistic factors (form) in the stories"Kabab-e Ghaz" and Fi al-Qatar". To what extent did we notice the connection between the narrative text and the concept of meaning (use of proverbs, terms, allusions, etc.) and form (simple or complex words, use of literary matrices, author's dialect, etc.)? Which of these cases is most prominent in the author's pen? By studying these cases, the author's writing style can be understood and considered as a signature of his work. The aim of the current research is not only to express the similarities or differences in the style of the two writers, but also to study the stylistic innovations of the authors, which were present in the prose of their predecessors. This research seeks to answer the following two basic questions: -What are the similarities and differences between the writing style of these two authors in the two mentioned stories? - How were these two authors, as contemporary novelists, able to cross tradition in their writing style and enter modern fiction?

In this research, the researchers studied the writing style of these two authors from the point of view of meaning and form, using a comparative approach based on the American school. 3. Discussion Every writer's writing style constructs different sentences are all related to the author's writing style. "Style is actually the type of author's use of mental images, conscious and unconscious signals, as well as the assumptions that the author puts in his mind immediatelyis unique to them. How an author uses words back and forth and after the reader's perceptions. Similaritys a) The simplicity of the sentence structure in the two stories b) The brevity of the sentences in the two stories c) The emphasis on the Quranic verses in the two stories d) The reference to religious issues in the two stories e) The use of proverbs in the two stories Differences a) The use of colloquial terms in the story of “Kabab-e Ghaz” , by reading Jamalzadeh various books, the author's interest in colloquial terms can be clearly observed. b) The use of humor in the story of “Kabab-e Ghaz” , in the story of “Kabab-e Ghaz” , the issue of people's failure to deal with societal issues is raised, such as: the termination of the contract, fruitless customs, and superstitions prevalent among the researched people c) The author's use of a serious and dry tone in the story of the train There are characters such as Rafay (a depressed character), the Sheikh (a religious character), the student (a polite and serious character). (Character) the Circassian (a violent and ill-tempered character).) It is necessary The mayor (a political figure) should be serious and dry, far from humor and jokes, according to his job, behavior, and mental and psychological characteristics. 

Conclusion :

1- In the comparative study conducted between the writing style of JamalZadeh and Mahmoud Taimur based on the American school, a clear similarity was found, including: simplicity of sentence structure, brevity of sentences, use of proverbs and affirmations, and Quranic and religious allusions appeared in the stories written by the unique authors. Stylistic differences can also be observed between these two authors, such as: the humorous tone and use of colloquial words in the story of “Kabab-e Ghaz” , and the serious tone devoid of humor of Mahmoud Taimur in the story of the train. 2- In the study conducted between the writing style of the authors, Jamalzadeh focused in the story of “Kabab-e Ghaz” on preserving the Persian language, which is evident in the use of expressions, paradoxes and proverbs. However, Mahmoud Taimur in the story of the train, in addition to his interest in preserving the language, can be considered based on his adherence to the official text even in dialogues, as well as the use of proverbs and allusions, and the basic social issues of his time, such as: considering the farmer equal to the master in education and knowledge, were expressed in the serious tone of the text and the spoken language. 3- Traces of tradition can still be seen in the story of Jamalzadeh's roast goose. By concluding his story and using the phrase "from us to us". He made the story closer to the story. As we have seen in stories, a conclusion is reached at the end. However, the passage of tradition can be seen in Jamalzadeh's story. Using humor that contains many words hidden in its layers, and using the element of suspense in the plot of the story to attract the audience and attention to the characters in the story. Therefore, although Jamalzadeh could not completely distance himself from the classical novel, he put himself on the path of the modern novel. There is no trace of the classical Arabic novel in Mahmoud Taimurs story. By using the open ending formula, Taimur completely separated his story from classical fiction. Because the open ending is one of the characteristics of the modern story that considers the audience as a white reader and allows him to take a personal point of view of the story. Such a thing was not common in the style of classical writers. 4- Among Jamalzadeh innovations in the story of Kebab Gas, we can mention the combination of cultural and moral issues with humor. The author has narrated cultural and moral issues with a humorous pen full of similes and allusions. Such as Mustafa’s betrayal of the narrator’s trust and his failure to promise not to eat the geese, which has educational and moral roots. Mahmoud Taymour also in the story of the train, since the topics covered in that story are serious, touching and meaningful. Even in the parts of the story where sarcasm is presented, especially in the dialogues, it seems as if he is escaping from those situations by using routine words or interrupting conversations so that the sentences of his story do not make the audience laugh. From the beginning of the story to the end, the author narrates the stories in a serious, dry and, of course, hopeless tone in some parts.

Among all the languages of the world, words combine naturally and systematically to form syntactic chains based on specific patterns. One of the functions of grammar is to define the rules governing the collocation of words within various structures. Thus, the processing of numbers is a key and important grammatical topic that forms the basis of understanding and comprehending grammatical rules. Therefore, this article first defines numbers in both Persian and Arabic and then examines the types and categories of numbers in the grammar of both languages in detail, which will facilitate a better understanding of numbers from a grammatical perspective in the mentioned languages. The significance and necessity of this research lie in the comparative study of numbers and their quantifiers in both Persian and Arabic in a scientific and investigative manner. The exploration of data and highlighting points regarding the characteristics of numbers in both languages can provide better insights for the comparative understanding of numbers from a grammatical standpoint. The primary objective of this research is to elucidate this topic for scholars in this field and to explain the grammatical relationships between Persian and Arabic. Accordingly, this research seeks to answer questions such as: What are the grammatical differences in numbers between the mentioned languages? Is the usage of numbers in both languages the same or not

In this study, a descriptive-analytical method was employed using library resources, primarily drawing on both classical and modern grammar books. Ultimately, a comparative discussion and conclusion were reached regarding the use of numbers in the grammar of Arabic and Persian. This began with data collection, where a diverse array of literary, scientific, and conversational texts from both languages was gathered to provide a comprehensive representation of numerical usage in each language.Additionally, structural analysis was conducted, examining the syntactic and morphological structures of numbers in both languages. This included the investigation of cardinal and ordinal numbers and their roles in sentences.The comparative analysis systematically examined the collected data to identify structural and functional similarities and differences in the use of numbers in both languages. Cultural context was also explored to understand how the usage of numbers in each language is influenced by their respective cultures and traditions, which aids in bettercomprehending the meanings and applications of numbers.Validation of findings was carried out through consultations with linguistic experts and peer reviews to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results. This methodology has contributed to a deeper understanding of the functions of numbers in Arabic and Persian, addressing the overall objectives of the study. The findings indicate that there are differences and similarities in the usage of numbers in Arabic and Persian, with each language's grammatical structure uniquely influencing their application.

Interpretation of Results and Their Implications for Linguistics and Language Education,The comparative analysis of numerical structures reveals that both Arabic and Persian possess unique numerical frameworks. In Arabic, numbers typically change according to grammatical rules and must agree with the gender and number of nouns. In contrast, Persian exhibits a simpler structure, with numbers being less influenced by the gender and number of nouns.Semantic Application:The results indicate that numbers play a significant role in conveying the meaning of sentences and facilitating communication in both languages. In Arabic, certain numbers have specific meanings that are not present in Persian.Cultural Differences:Numbers relate not only to linguistic aspects but also to the cultures and traditions of each language. For example, the use of numbers in poetry and literary texts in both languages may reflect distinct cultural characteristics.Implications of Comparative Analysis for Linguistics:Deeper Linguistic Analysis:This study can assist linguists in achieving a better understanding of the linguistic structures and grammatical rules of each language. Recognizing the differences and similarities may contribute to the development of linguistic theories.

Research in Related Languages:

The findings can provide a solid foundation for further research in other related languages and aid in identifying common linguistic patterns.Implications of Comparative Analysis for Language Education:More Effective Teaching Methods Learning the differences and similarities in numbers between the two languages can help language teachers develop more effective teaching strategies for learners. This understanding can also help prevent common errors in learning numbers.Development of Educational Resources:The results of this study could lead to the creation of new and effective educational resources for learning Arabic and Persian. For instance, textbooks and educational materials that address numerical differences in each language could be beneficial.Cultural Awareness:Teaching language alongside an understanding of numerical differences can help learners become more familiar with the culture and customs associated with each language, facilitating more effective intercultural communication.Types of Numbers:Numbers, as nouns or adjectives that denote quantity or order, can be divided into two main categories: cardinal and ordinal.Cardinal Numbers: These can be singular, compound, and include contractual forms. Each type has its specific grammatical rules.Ordinal Numbers: These also can be singular, compound, and include contractual forms. Ordinal numbers typically follow the nouns they modify and agree with them in grammatical case, definiteness, and indefiniteness.Differences between Persian and Arabic:In Arabic, the noun (معدود) agrees with the number and can be singular or plural, while in Persian, the noun is always singular. This characteristic has varied historically, with instances where the noun would agree with the number.Types of Numbers in Persian:There are five types of numbers:Ordinal (descriptive) numbers, Cardinal numbers,Composite numbers, Distributive numbers, and Fractional numbers, which can be divided into two categories: auditory (سماعی) and analogical (قیاسی).Clarifiers (Modifiers):Clarifiers are words that follow the number and clearly specify the meaning of the noun, such as تن (ton), نفر (person), راس (head), etc. These clarifiers can indicate quantity, unit, time, and type of the noun.Numerical Indicators:Cardinal numbers have both nominal indicators and descriptive indicators. Ordinal descriptive adjectives are formed using specific suffixes (م and مین).Determining Grammatical Class:Determining the grammatical class of cardinal numbers can be challenging due to their nominal and adjectival features. Additionally, ambiguous numbers in cases where the noun is situated between two or more ambiguous numbers begin from the smaller number.In conclusion, the examination of numbers in Arabic and Persian illustrates the complex and diverse structures of these two languages. A precise understanding of these features not only aids in a better comprehension of linguistics but can also lead to improvements in language education.

After conducting a comparative analysis of numbers in Arabic and Persian, we have reached the following conclusions The discussion of numbers in Arabic is a practical topic that exhibits various changes in grammatical and syntactic aspects of the nouns they modify, possessing specific grammatical functions. Moreover, the agreement between numbers and nouns in Arabic is mandatory, a characteristic that is not observed in Persian.In both Persian and Arabic, numbers serve as nouns or adjectives that denote the quantity or order of objects, with the counted entity referred to as "معدود" (ma‘dud). In Arabic, the agreement between the noun and number is obligatory, whereas in Persian, the noun always remains singular.Numbers in Arabic are divided into two types: primary and secondary. The primary numbers are categorized into singular, compound, contractual, and coordinated forms. In contrast, in Persian, numbers are divided into five types: ordinal (descriptive) numbers, cardinal numbers, composite numbers, distributive numbers, and fractional numbers, with fractional numbers further divided into auditory and analogical categories. Therefore, if we consider added numbers as the fifth type in Arabic, there is no significant difference in the classification of numbers between Persian and Arabic.Ordinal or descriptive numbers in Arabic, like primary numbers, are classified into four forms: singular, compound, coordinated, and definite. In Persian, the ordinal numbers are primarily treated as adjectives or simple cardinal numbers, such as those from 1-9 and multiples of ten (20, 30, 40, etc.), or composite forms like eleven and twelve up to twenty, six hundred, and seven hundred, etc.The indicators for primary numbers in Persian sometimes function like adjectives, as in: "approximately ten days." In terms of meaning, they align closely with adjectives such as "very," "few," and "little," for example: "a very good book." Additionally, like any adjective, they can modify the meaning of nouns. In many instances, the indicators for nouns also serve as indicators for certain adjectives, as many adjectives, including demonstrative, interrogative, exclamatory, and some descriptive adjectives, precede their nouns, such as: "this book," "which pen," "a good person," and "a bad man." However, in Arabic, the noun itself holds the grammatical and syntactic roles of both adjective and noun, with the number's grammatical case, definiteness, and indefiniteness conforming to that of the noun preceding it.In Persian, numbers and nouns are articulated under various titles, such as ambiguous numbers, modifiers, primary numerical adjectives, and ordinal numerical adjectives, which are specific to the Persian language and do not have direct counterparts in Arabic.In Arabic, the distinction of numbers is used to eliminate ambiguity, similar to how, in Persian, terms like "روشنگر" (roshangar) and "ممیز" (mumayyiz) are employed to clarify ambiguous nouns.Overall, the examination of numbers in Arabic and Persian reveals the complex and diverse structures of these two languages. Understanding these features not only enhances our comprehension of linguistics but can also contribute to improvements in language education.