حال ساده

This study investigated the effects of processing-based instruction (PI) and output-based instruction (OI) on learners’ development in comprehension and production of the English present simple tense. The findings contribute to the ongoing debate on the effects of PI versus OI. Among 70 EFL learners at a private language center in Iran, 40 pre-intermediate learners were assigned to the PI group, and 20 learners were assigned to the OI group (n=20). The PI group received structured processing input activities, while the OI group engaged in structured output activities. Descriptive and analytical statistics revealed that participants in the PI group significantly outperformed the participants in the OI group in receptive knowledge of the target structure. However, both instructional methods affected the participants’ productive understanding of the present simple tense, and the difference between the efficacy of these two types of instruction on participants’ productive knowledge was not significant.

The advice of governments in all periods is usually simplistic; but in the second half of the Qajar period, since both the kings themselves were writers and were directly involved in correspondence, they became a model of simplification in practice. The spread of journalism and telegraph, and memoirs and sermons and travelogues and critical essays and the spread of translation and fiction were important phenomena that made simplification a common pattern in the second half of the Qajar period. The coexistence and accompaniment of a large number of intellectuals, educated people, religious scholars and groups of bazaars and urban masses in the field of political, cultural and literary struggle, brought the thoughts and language of these groups closer to each other and formed a simple and clear language and expression. It became Analytical- Interpretive, reasoned, and devoid of the literary and complex aspects of prose. Undoubtedly, the connection with Europe and the expansion of worldview and the transformation of intellectual sensitivities and the influence of their books and newspapers and acceptance of change in all phenomena and its spread, change in literature and writing can be factors influencing the simplicity of prose and poetry in this period. On the other hand, a number of internal factors were involved in this simplicity, some of which are: facing an illiterate and illiterate audience and the development of various sciences, and accelerating political developments.

This study investigates the thematic structure in Middle Persian Texts based on Halliday’s approach. Accordingly, it could be investigated that what changes have happened in the thematic structure during the process of Language development. Halliday and Matthiessen (2014) claim that the theme is the point of departure. In order to do this study, two texts of kārnāmag i ardešir bābakān (Text 1) and dinkar šašom (Text 2) were chosen. The results suggest that the highest occurrence of themes belongs to the unmarked multiple theme (almost 65% in both texts) with the pattern of “Textual theme + Topical theme” (70.27% in Text1 and 60.83% in Text2). Based on this fact it could be claimed that in that era this pattern was used to transfer the message.

Majales Sab'a is one of the important works of Jalaluddin Mowlavi, which consists of seven sermons. This type of prose is called rhetorical prose and inspires the highest thoughts through the simplest logical forms. It has been used by great people such as Khawja Abdullah Ansari, Abu Saeed, Abul Fatah Shahreshtani, Rozbehan Baghli, Baha Ould, Mowlavi, Shams Tabriz and Saadi. The most important feature of this type of prose is its closeness to the spoken language, which is sometimes mixed with literary prose; the simplicity of the prose and lack of embellishment are among its characteristics as well. Compound verb is one of the most important grammatical topics and its correct usage makes the prose solid and well-founded. Considering this fact and the status of Majales Saba' and its linguistic features, the present article, with a descriptive-analytical method, explores the usage of compound verbs in Jalal al-Din Mowlavi’s Majales Saba'. The use of verbs in these texts helps us find the natural usage at that time and their precise grammatical analysis. In this research, we found that Rumi paid more attention to the use of simple verbs, and in many cases, he used many simple verbs from the same root or from different roots consecutively or with a short distance. Sometimes the simple and compound forms of a verb are combined. Some compound verbs are also affected by the existence of Arabic words in the structure of compound verbs, and although they are used in simple form in Arabic, they have become compound verbs in Farsi and Majales Sab'a. Saj’a (literally meaning musicality) also causes the usage of compound or simple verb.

Writing scientific and academic books, articles, and delivering lectures on various scientific topics are among the effective ways of communicating knowledge and information to audiences and learners. Therefore, it is worth noting that researchers, scholars, and teachers in various fields of research should adopt a writing or lecturing style that effectively and successfully communicates information to the audience, enabling them to easily benefit from learning new content and information. Priority should be given to using scientific language, which is plain, direct in interpretation, and has logical structures and order that utilize words in their true meaning, guiding the audience directly to the intended meaning.However, some authors, researchers, and speakers opt for a sublime and glorious style of presentation, aiming to deliver eloquent speech or writing. Despite this, they should consider that the primary and crucial goal of presenting scientific content is to convey it properly and explicitly to the audience. Therefore, teachers should pay attention to differences such as gender, education, and field of study among their audience when choosing their presentation style. Each variable affects people's preferences for learning. For example, studies in applied linguistics have shown that gender differences play a role in the use of language tools, with men and women differing in their use of lexical items. Additionally, individuals' level of education and their expertise and specialization shape the way they use lexical items or grammatical structures. If the audience is trained according to their preferences in receiving and processing information, they will achieve better academic results.Due to these differences among learners, the education system needs to consider learners' learning styles and emotions, as they are essential factors in the field of education. Emotions not only affect students' preparation and motivation to deal with problems but also their efforts and the strategies they use to understand the course content. In this regard, utilizing the emo-sensory style (involving the senses and evoking emotions) and engaging different senses of students in the process of grasping information can be beneficial.Given the importance of considering audience differences and their needs when selecting the writing and speaking style of authors and speakers, the present study aims to examine the language preferences of students of different genders, various levels of education, and fields of study. This analysis is conducted using a new measure that examines sublime, emo-sensory, and simple styles. The paper seeks to answer the question of whether gender, level of education, and field of study significantly influence learners' preferences regarding these styles.

Stress is a linguistic property of a word that specifies which syllable in the word is stronger than any of the others. Early studies such as Fry (1955, 1958), Lieberman (1960), Beckman (1986), Harrington, Beckman, and Palethorpe (1998) (see also Laver, 1994 for an overview) have shown that there are clear acoustic differences between stressed and unstressed syllables: stressed syllables are realized with higher pitch, higher intensity, longer duration, and more peripheral vowel quality than unstressed syllables. Studies in many stress-accent languages show that the stressed realization of a syllable differs from the unstressed realization of the same syllable by having higher pitch. Also, results have showed that speakers consistently use duration to distinguish between open and central vowels that contrasted in stress at the word level. In contrast with F0 and duration, the relation of intensity variation in the speech signal to word stress is still controversial.In this paper, we investigated the role of acoustic factors involved in perceptually differentiating simple past from present perfect verbs in Persian, through manipulation of fundamental frequency (F0) and duration. Thus, tokens were resynthesized from the phonetic forms of Persian simple past and present perfect verbs in which F0 and duration were manipulated in several steps. The target tokens were presented to some native Persian participants to identify as simple past or present perfect. Results suggested that Persian listeners’ judgements of the tense of the target tokens depend, to a great extent, on the local F0 values of the verbs’ syllables as any amount of increase in the local F0 points of the respective syllables can categorically change the listeners’ judgements about the temporal reading of the verbs involved. On the other hand, results for duration showed that values of this parameter fail to produce a significant effect on listeners’ judgements.

This study investigated the acoustic parameters of the fundamental frequency, first and second formant frequencies, duration and intensity in KhoramAbadi Luri vowels. 10 participants (5 male, 5 female) produced 1620 tokens, including /ɑ،y،ø،o،u،ə،a،e،ʏ،ɪ،i/ vowels. The result showed that /a/ has the lowest fundamental frequency; /e/ and /ʏ/ have the highest amount of this parameter in male and female speakers, respectively. /a/ and /i/ are the open and close vowels in KhoramAbadi Luri. /i/ and /o/ are the front and back vowels. /ø/ and /ɑ/ have the highest vowel duration amongst other vowels; /ʏ/ and /ə/ have the lowest vowel duration in male and female speakers, respectively. /e/ has the highest intensity in both male and female speakers; /a/ and /u/ have the lowest intensity in male and female speakers, respectively. Generally, female speakers have higher fundamental frequency, first and second formant frequencies and duration, but intensity is higher in male speakers.

This paper addressed the acoustic factors involved in distinguishing simple past and present perfect tenses in Persian. The pronunciation of Persian simple past and present perfect tenses in colloquial speech are the same segmentally but different in terms of the position of stress. In an experimental study, the pattern of distribution of some important prosodic parameters, including F0, intensity, and duration, was investigated in a speech corpus consisting of 24 sentences. Results suggested that none of the study parameters could differentiate simple past and present perfect tenses reliably and consistently. After normalizing F0 and computing the average pitch for all acoustic data per speaker, it was found that it is the value of F0 peaks and valleys in the target syllables that makes a fundamental distinction between simple past and present perfect. Results of statistical tests confirmed this finding, suggesting that the local F0 value is a reliable and consistent parameter that distinguishes simple past from present perfect in both the syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes.

Polysemy is one of the most important issues that has been considered in different schools of linguistics and especially in cognitive approach. In this descriptive-documentary study, polysemy in loanwords of Persian and Turkish of Azerbaijani was discussed. The data selected from local journals in Persian and Turkish languages, the Turkish-Persian dictionary of Shahmaresi and the Persian-Azerbaijani dictionary written by Behzadi. Prototypical meanings were based on the results of the interview and the linguistic intuition of the authors. Totally, 20 polysemous common adjectives identified from the corpuses and a radial network drawn from six of them. Among the cognitive mechanisms of polysemy creation, it was proved that conceptual metaphors would play the greatest role among them. Moreover, the connection between the meanings of polysemous adjectives is not accidental, but a systematic relationship existed and described by radial categorization. It was also found that the cognitive mechanisms of polysemy creation in Turkish and Persian common adjectives (loanwords) were the same and they differed only in the number of peripheral meanings which can be a step in confirming the sharing of human cognitive abilities. Also, high number of peripheral meanings in the target language may be due to the bilingualism and dynamic schematics. The results, along with complementary studies, can be applied in the field of language teaching, lexicography, more efficient translation machines and they will be helpful for all the stakeholders in the field.

Language form is affected by many factors. This study is intended to investigate the information distribution in the simple Persian marked and unmarked structures. Information structure deals with how old (evoked) and new information are distributed in the sentences of a text. The present study is aimed at investigating the information structure of Pre-posed constituents of Persian simple sentences. Grammatical role and syntactic category of the pre-posed constituents were, also, investigated. To achieve the goals, a corpus including 226 simple sentences from a football match between Real Madrid and Juventus was investigated to analyze the information status of pre-posed constituents. The collected sentences were all simple (marked and unmarked) sentences. Prince (1992), Ward and Birner (2004) and Birner (2013) were referred to frequently as theoretical model of this study. After collecting the data, they were codified and analyzed employing SPSS software version 23. Findings revealed that most of the pre-posed constituents were old (evoked or inferential) in terms of discourse, while new in listeners' view. As far as grammatical role is concerned, indirect objects were found to be pre-posed more than other grammatical roles. Finally, in terms of syntactic categories, the pre-posed constituents were found to be mainly noun phrases and prepositional phrases.

Polysemy is one of the most important issues considered in different schools of linguistics and meaning studies. In this descriptive-documentary study, polysemy in simple adjectives of Azerbaijani Turkish was discussed within the cognitive approach. The data was selected from local journals in Turkish, the Turkish-Persian dictionary of Shahmaresi and the Persian-Azerbaijani dictionary written by Behzadi. Prototypical meanings were based on the results of a researcher-made questionnaire, interview, and the linguistic intuition of the authors. A total of 70 polysemous simple adjectives were identified from the corpuses and a radial network was drawn for each one. Among the cognitive mechanisms of polysemy creation, it was proved that conceptual metaphors would play the greatest role in polysemy creation of all. And, contrary to the traditional view, the connection between the meanings of polysemous adjectives is not accidental, but a systematic relationship exists and can be described by radial categorization. The results, along with complementary studies, can be applied in the field of language teaching, lexicography, more efficient translation machines, increasing the relevance in information retrieval and will be helpful for all experts in the field.

Due to the significance of vowels in the acoustics of languages, the present study is designed to investigate the simple and complex vowels in Kermanshahi Kurdish in terms of first and second formants (F1 and F2). Vowels in CVC and CV syllables of Kermanshahi Kurdish words are selected in word reading speech and the differences of formant frequency in open and closed syllables are investigated. In order to evaluate and determine the transgender formant frequency, 10 Kermanshahi Kurdish speakers (5 males and 5 females) are selected. Based on the results obtained from our analysis using Praat software, there are 8 simple vowels in Kermanshahi Kurdish including (a, e, o, ɑ, ı, u, i, and y) and 8 complex vowels (ɑe, ei, eo, ya, yɑ, ia, iɑ and ey).

Information structure deals with how old (evoked) and new information is distributed in the sentences of a text. The present study is aimed at investigating the information structure of post-posed constituents of Persian simple sentences. Grammatical role and syntactic category of the post-posed constituents were, also, investigated. To achieve the goals, a corpus including 226 simple sentences was investigated to analyze the information status of post-posed constituents. Ward and Birner (2004) and Birner (2013) were referred to frequently as theoretical model. The findings revealed that most of the post-posed constituents were old (evoked or inferential) in terms of discourse, while new in listeners' view. As far as grammatical role is concerned, subjects (apposed to previous literature) were found to be post-posed more than other grammatical roles. Finally, in terms of syntactic categories, the pos-posed constituents were found to be mainly prepositional phrases and noun phrases

In deciding on the position and the role of words in a sentence, we may encounter confusion and doubts when the core sentence is transformed and there may also arise some controversies in syntactic interpretations. One of these cases is simple sentences that are not compatible with basic syntactic roles of sentence formation. If the phrase "Tehran, its air is polluted," in Persian is taken into consideration, we can see that the original sentence can be stated as follows: "Tehran's air is polluted." Hence, we are faced with two kinds of sentence and two types of structures: the underlying and the surface structure.  What is the origin of ambiguity is the identification of the predicate of the sentence and analysis of the structure of the first sentence. The grammarians have not stated any comment on the predicate of these sentences and sufficed to say that the genitive case is discontinuous in this sentence.This article is a qualitative research in the explanation and thematic analysis of grammar. The researcher repeats certain sections repeatedly to arrive at a correct and logical conclusion and provide a clear explanation. In any case, while quoting and criticizing the votes of the instructional staff, it has been proven that in the Persian language, the sentences are simple two-word sentences.

This study investigated the acoustic parameters of the first (F1) and the second (F2) formant frequencies of monophthongs and diphthongs in Kermanshahi Kurdish based on 5260 tokens, including /i, e, a, ɑ, o, u, y, ɑi, au, ei, ɑu/ in word and sentence context produced by 20 male and female speakers in a sound proof room. The results showed that /y/ and /a/ are close and open vowels and /i/ and /u/ are front and back vowels in this dialect, respectively. Based on the mean value, /y/ in this dialect is a rounded vowel. According to the statistical analysis, the mean difference in F1 onset was significant in word and sentence context; this amount was higher in word context than sentence context, whereas in offset it was higher in sentence context. The F2 onset and offset have a lower amount in word context than sentence context. Overall, F1 and F2 were lower in male speakers than female speakers.

The Present research is a semantic attempt to the semantic exploration of Persian non- compound verbs and their formal-sematic equivalent compound verbs with the aim of showing which kind(s) of synonymy there are between these equivalents. In this study, first, the author’s point of view about Persian compound and non-compound verbs are explained and then, after mentioning different methods of making compound verbs out of non-compound verbs in Persian, different kinds of synonymy from semanticists’ point of view have been introduced and explained. After a short discussion about different kinds of synonymy, through using examples, we try to argue which kinds of synonymy there are between discussed equivalents. To reach this goal, 363 non-compound verbs which have formal-semantic equivalent compound verbs have been collected from Sokhan 8-vol. Persian dictionary. The corpus has been attached to the article as an appendix. The results of the investigations have shown that absolute synonymy and implied synonymy do not exist between these equivalents, but other kinds of synonymy; namely near synonymy, analytical synonymy, descriptive synonymy, partial synonymy, propositional synonymy do exist between the studied equivalents.