جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « دستور نقش و ارجاع » در نشریات گروه « ادبیات و زبان ها »

The verb "xɑstan" in Persian has a dual nature, so that it can be used both as an auxiliary verb and a lexical verb. " xɑstan " as a lexical verb indicates different meanings that are also expressed in the form of different structures. Accordingly, the purpose of this study is to discuss the syntactic and semantic dimensions of this verb in different constructions. The authors believe that Role and Reference Grammar (RRG), with its approach to the study of complex constructions, is well capable of giving a comprehensive description of the constructions in question. In this command, complex constructions are explained based on the "Interclausal Relations Hierarchy ". The mentioned hierarchy consists of two syntactic and semantic continuities. In the syntactic dimension, juncture-nexus relations are considered and in the semantic continuum, the type of semantic relations based on the main predicate is discussed. In this regard, an attempt was made to describe the various uses of the verb " xɑstan " based on hierarchy, and from this approach, the assumptions of the RRG were tested based on research findings. Some findings suggest that the verb " xɑstan " semantically falls into the category of psych-action, jussive and propositional attitude predicates, and in the syntactic dimension it also appears in the form of core cosubordination and core subordination. It is worth mentioning that the data of the present study are taken from the corpus of Hamshahri 2.

In the present study Azeri Turkish noun phrase construction is investigated in the framework of Role and Reference Grammar and Van Valin's (2005) theoretical pattern. In this descriptive analytical study, the data was selected from written resources and by listening to the conversations of the Azeri-speaking inhabitants of eastern Azerbaijan and only sentences containing complex and compound nominal phrases were selected by purposive sampling.Data analyses revealed that complex nominal phrase consists of restrictive clauses, nonrestrictive clauses and nominal complements.Relationship in restrictive relative group is of subordinative type and the link is of nucleus type.Due to this point that nonrestrictive relative clauses don`t transfer essential information for recognizing noun to listener and haven`t semantically close relationship with nominal nucleus, relationship in this type of noun phrase is subordinative and the link is of nominal core type.Constructions that have nominal complement have a clause as an argument of nominal nucleus core.The type of relationship in this noun phrase is of subordinative type and the link is of nominal nucleus core type.Compound nominal phrase consists of conjunctive nominal phrases,endocentric,exocentric and appositive.And also, Studying of noun phrase construction based on Role and Reference Grammar,we can refer to points that are specific to this ....

The aim of this research is to investigate object omission based on Role and Reference Grammar. Object omission is a valency-reduction process in which a verb which is transitive in nature, appears without its object. This study, will indicate semantic, syntactic and pragmatic representation of the aforementioned construction with respect to the presented concepts in Role and Reference Grammar including the layered structure of the clause, logical structure, semantic macroroles, information structure, activation status of the referents and linking algorithm. Explaining object omission in the framework of RRG, indicates one of the advantages of this grammar. Although RRG attends to the interaction between form and function, it declines the abstract layers or elements in the syntactic analysis. Accordingly, in this grammar the syntactic structure of the clause is represented based on what is explicitly applicable. Therefore, RRG is not faced with any restriction in explaining object omission and regarding what is explicitly presented in the sentence, it behaves with transitive verbs which omit their objects as intransitive ones. The most specific attainments of investigating object omission in the framework of RRG are as follows: In the layered structure of a clause with omitted object, one of the arguments of the core will be reduced and the syntactic representation will be like an intransitive verb with just one argument (subject) in the core. The logical structure of such verbs, likewise, will be represent with just one argument (x), unlike transitive verbs which has two arguments (x, y) in logical structure. Regarding the aktionsart type of the verbs, the findings indicate that activities are the most frequent verbs in object omission construction. the reason is that the second argument of activity verbs is not a macrorole and therefore can be omitted. Describing object omission with regard to information structure and activation status of the referents in RRG shows that as in the aforementioned construction the object is omitted, it cannot be a focal or topical element and its referent can be considered as an accessible one. Since it is the hearer’s knowledge of the world that makes it possible to understand the notion of the omitted object. Moreover, in this study, regarding object omission construction, linking algorithm from semantic to syntax and from syntax to semantics has been provided. The bidirectional diagrams show that the linking principles of selecting and linking undergoer in both directions will not exist in the objectless sentences.

In Role and Reference Grammar (RRG), based on stativity, telicity, and punctuality, verbs are classified into six classes named state, activity, achievement, accomplishment, semelfactive, and active-accomplishment. The predicates in these classes can take one, two, or three argument(s) according to the number of participants involved in an event as well as the argument structure of the verb. Three-place predicates need three distinct arguments and they exhibit some abstract or concrete transition or movement in their conceptual structure. The argument in three-place predicates, undergoing alternation, can appear in more than one syntactic format; that is to say, in unmarked structures, direct object is ‘râ’-marked and the indirect object is accompanied by a preposition. This is while in marked or alternate form, the preposition is deleted and the non-macrorole argument receives the role of direct object. In Persian, like many other languages, the frequency of three-place predicates, in comparison with one and two-place predicates, is low, but knowing their behavior is significant for better applying them in related contexts. Employing framework of RRG, this paper, aims to investigate alternation in three-place predicates of Aktionsart in Persian. The data are collected from various web sites, newspapers, books, and also daily conversations. Data analysis shows that state verbs do not undergo alternation; This is mainly because common characteristics of state verbs are their non-action nature and being low transitive or intransitive. Most verbs in this class need one or two argument(s) and low number of three-place predicates in this class, shows no alternation due to stativity and low transitivity. Motion active-accomplishment verbs, however, are more prone to alternation; concrete transition from an actor to a recipient is common among these verbs. Some three-place predicates in achievement class, have alternation; while alternation in accomplishment class, leads mostly to ungrammatical structure. Generally speaking, alternation in three-place predicates is the result of marked selection of the recipient, and is mostly observed in motion active-accomplishment verbs; the reason is non-stativity and high transitivity of this subclass in comparison to other verb classes.       

In Persian, like other languages, there are constructions in which two or more verbal predicates form a "single event". These constructions have been the subject of many linguistic researches and they are mainly interpreted as serial verbs, converbs, double verbs, etc. In the current research, all the mentioned constructions have been introduced under the general title of "complex constructions" and an attempt has been made to discuss the syntactic and semantic dimensions of these constructions. In order to achieve this goal, some basics of Role and Reference Grammar (RRG) such as "layered structure of the clause", "juncture-nexus relations" and "interclausal relations hierarchy" were used. The findings show that based on the semantics of the main predicate, complex constructions in Persian are placed in two categories: manner constructions and phase constructions, and syntactically, they appear in the form of nuclear and core juncture, and they have a linkage of cosubordination. In addition, based on the "Core-MEP theory", it was proved that complex constructions in Persian language have a MEP (macro-event property) and as a result, they are considered a macro-event phrase.

The present study studies control constructions in Persian language based on Role and Reference Grammar (RRG). In RRG, control constructions are discussed based on " theory of obligatory control ". This theory has semantic foundations and specifically evaluates the phenomenon of control based on the thematic relations of the arguments as well as the type of control predicates. In the present paper, we first categorized the types of control predicates based on " Interclausal semantic relations " in the RRG and in this command, we analyzed the types of control constructions based on psych-action, causative and jussive predicates. The findings confirm that the Persian language data are consistent with the theory of obligatory control and as a result, the explanatory adequacy of the theory can be confirmed. It is worth mentioning that the data of the present study are taken from the corpus of Hamshahri 2.

Phase predicates describe each of the beginning, continuation, or end phases of an event and are expressed in the form of verbs such as start, continue, end, and so on. In this regard, we call the structures in which there is a phasal predicates "phase construction" and discuss them. We believe that Role and Reference Grammar (RRG) with its approach to the analysis of complex constructions can be used as a theoretical framework for the present study. Based on this, we first analyze the syntactic and semantics aspects of phase constructions, then explain the interaction of the two levels of syntax and semantics. Finally, we will present the “constructional scheme” of phase constructions in Persian language. In the syntactic dimension, various types of "juncture-nexus" relations are considered, and in the semantics dimension, various properties of predicates will be the focus of discussion. Syntactic-semantic interaction in phase constructions will also be justified in the form of linking algorithms. It is worth mentioning that the data of the present study are taken from the corpus of Hamshahri 2.

Role and Reference Grammar (RRG) provides a workable mechanism, namely “interclausal relations hierarchy”, for the analysis of complex constructions. It is used as a general rule for interlinguistic studies. This hierarchy consists of "semantic continuum" and "syntactic continuum" and is based on iconicity, which means that constructions with high semantic correlations are expressed in the form of stronger syntactic relations and vice versa. In this hierarchy, causative constructions are also included, which were the focus of the present study. In this research, causative constructions were divided into 3 types: causative [type 1] or direct causatives, causative [type 2] or indirect causatives, and jussives. We first examined their syntactic semantic forms and interactions in causative constructions. The juncture-nexus relations and semantic hierarchy were discussed in the syntactic and semantic dimensions, respectively. The findings indicated that the direct causatives were in nuclear co-subordination relations, while the indirect causatives and jussives were in core co-subordination relations. We also proposed a constructional scheme for direct causation in Persian. The interaction of the two levels of syntax and semantics in causative constructions was also explained in the form of linking algorithms. Finally, it was found that Persian language acts in a way that it confirms the "interclausal relation hierarchy" and thus, its explanatory adequacy could be corroborated.

Persian owns a flexible syntax and is thought to be a free word order language. In this paper, employing a Role and Reference Grammar framework, we argue that constituent reordering in preposing and left-dislocation constructions of the Persian left-periphery is the result of the interface between information-discourse structure, on the one hand, and a certain syntactic position in the layered structure of the clause, on the other: topical, focused, and contrastive constituents are hosted respectively by the left-detached position, pre-core slot, and kontrast position. Bear in mind that each position requires a certain discourse condition to be met. We also show that non-canonical constituent orders at the Persian left-periphery are not merely a rearrangement of syntactic units for pragmatic reasons, they are in effect ‘constituent ordering constructions’ in line with the notion of construction as proposed and defined in the RRG theory.

Aspect is divided to lexical and grammatical types. Lexical aspect is derived from verb meaning and its subtypes are states, activities, achievements and accomplishments; Grammatical aspect is represented by inflection or some auxiliary verbs and includes perfective, imperfective, perfect and prospective ones. The present paper, in the framework of Role and Reference Grammar, studies the interaction of Aktionsart and progressive aspect in Persian verbs. It is usually accepted that states, don’t appear with progressive aspect, while “waxing or waning situations, agentivity and temporary situations”, pave the way for them to be used with progressive aspect. Activities are mostly compatible with progressive as their dynamicity is in accord with progression. Achievements are usually regarded unacceptable, but they can have different readings in progressive aspect including preliminary process, slow motion, iterative, futurate progressive and commentary reading. Accomplishments due to being durative and having stages, are acceptable in progressive aspect.

Aspect refers to “different ways of viewing the internal temporal constituency of a situation” (Comrie, 1976, p.3) and consists of lexical and grammatical types. Grammatical aspect is represented by inflection or some auxiliary verbs while lexical aspect is denoted by the inherent meaning of the verbs (Rezai, 2012). The aspectual classification of Vedler (1957), has been one of the most influential theories in lexical aspect studies (Tenny, 1987, p.29; Peck et al., 2013, p. 664; Kanijo, 2019, p.73). Vendler (1957) has classified verbs into four classes named states, activities, achievements, and accomplishments based on their stativity, duration, and telicity. Achievements describe the change of state that occurs instantaneously and creates a new situation (Pavey, 2010, p.97), they have inherent endpoint and are usually regarded as not being used progressively. Two sub-classes of achievements are “culminations” and “happenings”. Culminations need some time to occur, for example, to “reach a summit”, we have to walk a distance. Happenings lack this preparatory phase and occur instantly, for example, “explode” occurs in a very short time. In previous studies, Persian verbs have been classified to two classes, “achievement” verbs that occur in a short time and have endpoint and “durative” verbs that entails some time to occur (Jahan Panah Tehrani, 1984). Vahidiyan Kamyar (1992) added the third class, named “achievement-durative” verbs that occur in a short time but don’t end and extend through time. Abolhassani (2011) has also classified achievements to three sub-classes. Other studies have mostly investigated lexical or grammatical aspect in Persian or in a specific dialect (Daneshpazhouh et al., 2013; Abasi, 2015, Dastlan, 2018). The main objective of this study is to describe different readings of Persian achievements along with grammatical aspects in the framework of Role and Reference Grammar (RRG). For this purpose, achievement verbs, in two subdivisions named “culminations” and “happenings”, were selected in different contexts and their readings were analyzed in different grammatical aspects. Data have been collected from different Persian sites on the Internet and daily conversations.

This paper studies the interaction of achievement predicates with grammatical aspects based on Role and Reference Grammar. RRG has proven to be a very practical framework for the description of aspectual classes. It proposes a linear and layered conception of syntactic organization without placing any underlying forms or movement rules and posits only one level of syntactic representation that is mapped directly into the semantic representation (Van Valin & Lapolla, 1997, p.21).The semantic structure in RRG provides a clear system of lexical decomposition that is an Aktionsart-based method of representing the semantics of predicates and their arguments (Van Valin & Lapolla, 1997, p.91). A predicate is identified as a member of a particular classification depending on some grammatical tests that have been established for English and other languages. The semantic representation is linked to the syntactic structure by means of an algorithm and the semantic roles of arguments are correlated with macroroles. In RRG a sentence is composed of at least one clause and clause of at least one core. Within the clause core are the nuclear predicating element and its arguments. Adverbs modifying the nucleus are not core elements but are placed in positions preceding or following the nucleus called peripheries. In Role and Reference Grammar (Van Valin & Lapolla, 1997, p.91-92), verbs are divided to four basic classes, including states, activities, achievements and accomplishments as proposed by Vendler (1957). Based on some specific-language tests, each of these classes are distinguished from each other. States are homogenous and involve no action and no final point. Activities, despite states, represent actions and have continuous feature. Achievements occur in a moment and don’t have continuous feature. Accomplishments are change of state verbs but occur in a longer time in comparison with achievements. Among these classes, achievements are change of state verbs; the beginning and end of these verbs are so short that can be neglected. They have final point and since they are considered durationless, they can't be used with adverbs such as "vigorously" and "seriously".  Regarding the grammatical aspect, four main types can be distinguished; perfective, imperfective, perfect and prospective aspect. Perfective indicates a situation as a single whole, whereas the imperfective looks at the situation from inside and the focus is on the internal structure of the event (Smith, 1997, p.3). The perfect is retrospective which establishes a relation between an event at one time and a situation at an earlier time. In prospective aspect, the event is related to some subsequent situation, for example when some event is about to be done (Comrie, 1976, p.64). Based on this framework, different readings of Persian achievements are investigated in different grammatical aspects.Data have been selected from written and spoken resources, including web sites and daily conversations. As aspect is better specified in the context, each predicate has been considered in its actual use and the interaction of lexical and grammatical aspect has been identified.  

The data show that the culmination and happening predicates in Persian can occur with perfective aspect; since these verbs involve the final point, the occurrence of them with perfective aspect shows that the verb has reached its end and has finished.  As achievement predicates describe instantaneous changes from one state to another, the adage that achievements "lack progression" is well-known, but the presented data show that achievements in progressive forms can have five readings based on pragmatic context, including preliminary process reading, slow-motion (camera) reading, iterative reading, future progressive reading, and commentary reading (Gyarmathy, 2015). Culmination-achievements can occur on preliminary process reading that focus on the process before reaching the final phase of the verb. On slow-motion reading, an event described by the achievement predicate, which is regarded durationless, acts as a durative eventuality, that is, we "zoom in" to view it as an extended event. This reading is available to predicates which describe events that are not instantaneous, but take some small amount of time. The iterative reading is most natural with semelfactives. The future reading has prospective interpretation. The last reading or commentary reading, is available when the speaker is conveying the happenings to someone else; this reading is used when the exact timing of the utterance is not important. Achievement verbs in perfect aspect can represent some functions such as experiential, universal, hot news, and evidentiality. Achievement predicates in perfective, imperfective, and perfect aspect can represent some prospective interpretation depending on pragmatic context and existence of some temporal adverb denoting future time in the sentence.

Achievement verbs in perfective aspect denote change of states that occur instantaneously and reach  its endpoint. In culmination verbs, reaching  this endpoint entails some preparatory phase but in happening sub-class, this phase is not applied. Although achievements are regarded as lacking progressive, they can have five readings in imperfective aspect, depending on the context; they include preliminary process reading, slow-motion (camera) reading, iterative reading, future progressive reading, and commentary reading. Achievement verbs in perfect aspect can represent experiential, universal, evidentiality, and hot news functions. In prospective aspect, positive form of the sentence and some temporal adverbs are required to denote occurrence of the action in some future time.

In our ordinary and everyday speech and in the informal and colloquial contexts in general, we encounter the use of constructions, in which two verbs appear in a “verb-verb” situation, thus making a complex predicate construction, such as "kešid bordeš", "gereft xabid", and "daram miravam". All these three constructions have a common feature of adjacency of verbs, in which one verb has a matrix function and the other has a dependent function. Thus, in the present study, they were studied under the title of "adjacent verbs". The authors believed that the “Role and Reference Grammar (RRG)” would provide a useful theoretical framework for better understanding of the “construction of adjacent verbs”. In RRG, all linguistic constructions are explained in three dimensions: syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic (focus structure). Accordingly, in the present paper, we first classified the different types of adjacent verbs and then discussed their features. It starts by identifying the syntactic, semantic, and focus structure representations will be discussed and then, the constructional scheme of adjacent verbs in Persian will be represented.

This paper is concerned with a formal representation of auxiliation in four auxiliary constructions in Persian. These include the modal ‘bayæd’ construction, the futurate ‘xastæn’ construction, the aspectual ‘daštæn’ construction, and the modal ‘tævanestæn’ construction. Coached within a Role and Reference Grammar framework, the study explores the degree of grammaticalization in each construction utilizing three parameters of person/number inflection, tense-sensitivity, and contiguity. Each construction reacts differently with respect to these parameters to the extent that the auxiliary verb in the relevant construction receives a distinctive syntactic treatment in the layered structure of the clause. ‘bayæd’ is taken to be a fully developed operator exclusively projected in the operator projection. ‘xastæn’, together with the lexical of head, forms a complex nucleus demonstrating tense-inflection as well in the operator projection. ‘daštæn’, constituting a non-predicating nucleus, stands in an ad-nuclear subordinate relation to the lexical head in the progressive construction. ‘tævanestæn’ is the only modal verb within this quadripartite division that fails to constitute an auxiliary construction, due to the fact that it predicates a separate argument structure of its own in the spirit of the least amount of semantic bleaching. These all attest to the fact that the syntactic projection of each auxiliary verb in the layered structure of the clause is a reflection of the degree of grammaticalization in the relevant auxiliary construction.

Polarity is the opposition between positive and negative and Modality is the speaker’s judgment about the proposition and proposal. In fact, modality is the space between ‘yes’ and ‘no’. In this study, four main types of modality including “epistemic”, “evidential”, “deontic” and “dynamic” from Palmer's point of view, and three types of negation including “nuclear negation”, “core negation” and “clause/ sentence negation” based on Role and Reference Grammar of VanValin were introduced and then the relationship between them was investigated in the Persian. In order to determine the polarity of the nucleus, the presence or absence of a negative prefix, and to determine the polarity of the core, the relationship of the verb and its arguments has been considered. To detect the polarity of the sentence, two tests of “tag question” and “lie test” were used. Examination of the data showed that when the modality of the sentence is changed, the polarity of the sentence is changed as well. It seems that the combination of modality and polarity is a strategy for language users to be able to formulate the same propositional meanings in different ways according to different contexts, and thus follow different discourse purposes.

This paper investigates the so-called non-canonical subject construction where an experiencer non-canonically agrees with the verb via a clitic hosted by the pre-verbal element. A recurring theme in the literature is that the overt experiencer is a detached topic resulting from the left-dislocation of the state NP possessor. However, coached within an RRG framework, this paper explains that the overt experiencer is not a detached topic, but an internal argument for the psychological predicate. The overt experiencer, being an argument, is free to serve as the topic or focus depending on the context. It is further argued that the overt experiencer is not a subject in line with the characterization of syntactic relations in RRG because undergoer is the only macrorole the overt experiencer takes on. Historical evidence substantiates the claim that no underlyingly genitive association is traceable between the state NP and the clitic surfacing as experiencer.

State verbs, with the characteristic of non-dynamicity, denote no action and usually describe internal feelings, possession and place. They lack internal structure, stages and end point. The present study, within the framework of Role and Reference Grammar (RRG), investigates the interaction of state verbs and different grammatical aspects in Persian to see whether the interaction of subdivisions of state verbs with the grammatical aspects is the same. The subdivisions of state verbs in the current paper include Existence, Cognition, Emotion, Possession and Perception verbs. Data are gathered from the Internet, books, newspapers and daily conversations. Considering data indicates that the behavior of these subdivisions with different grammatical aspects is not the same. In perfect aspect all these verbs can be used without limitation. Although in most cases the progressive form of state verbs is regarded impossible, in cases such as “waxing or waning situation, agentivity and temporary state”, some of them can be used in progressive form. State verbs in perfective aspect, show functions such as experiential, universal, evidentiality and hot news. Positive form of the sentence and temporal adverbs denoting to some future time, pave the way for some state verbs to be used in prospective aspect.

The term predicate refers to two concepts in the literature; in the traditional grammar (in dividing the sentence into two parts: the subject and the predicate) and the other in the discussion of predicate-argument relations. Recent linguists have used two terms, predicate and predicator, to avoid confusing these two terms, respectively, for the first and second definition. In Persian, the two terms “Gozɑɹe” and “mahmul” have made a clear distinction between the two concepts. The present study investigates the different types of predicators in Persian based on the role and reference grammar to consider the differences and similarities between the predicators in Persian. The consideration of the layered structure of clauses and phrases showed that the nominal predicator has the most similarity and the prepositional predicator has the least to the verbal predicator. Furthermore, the findings showed that we have to accept the adjective phrase contrary to the role and reference grammar because there are different types of adjectival modifiers which are necessary to consider according to the layered structure.

Direct objects are encoded via specific grammatical tools in Persian. Using random data mostly from colloquial Persian (and written Persian in case of need), the author first intend to introduce these tools. Employing the Layered Structure of the Clause and Focus Structure as defined in Role and Reference Grammar, the author proceeds to formally represent the tools via syntactic templates that contain information-structural properties of the direct object. We learn that the hypothesis regarding the direct object being a secondary topic marker in the spirit of ra-marking (Dabir-Moghaddam, 2006) needs to be discarded. Information-structurally, not only is the direct object qualified to be part of the pragmatic presupposition, hence serving as the topic of the sentence, it is also licensed to constitute a narrow focus by itself or to participate in predicate and sentence focus structures. This originates from the fact that -ra in Persian signals the identifiability of the object’s referent in the interlocutors’ discourse universe. It is also proposed that the bi-fold classification of a narrow focus into in-situ information focus and ex-situ contrastive focus does not only apply to the narrow focus in the spirit of Persian data. A predicate focus can be contrastive when a ra-marked object residing at the Pre-Core Slot is disjoined from the transitive predicate by an intervening subject. In actuality, this discontinuous predicate focus structure is ‘construed’ as a contrastive narrow focus.