دوزبانگی

One of the consequences of being bilingual is encoding. Foreign Persian learners use encoding in the context of the class like all other second language learners; thus, the question arises as to how efficient the use of encoding in the context of the class is and what the reason for using encoding by second language learners. Unfortunately, no quantitative or qualitative research has been done in the field of Persian language encoding, and teachers still doubt the use of the mother tongue or intermediate language of Persian learners in the class and the extent of its use, the method of using it, and the purpose of using a language other than Persian language in the class, and teachers have different opinions about this. On the other hand, many researches have been conducted in connection with the learning of English language and the effect of encoding on it, which have investigated the reasons for encoding and its effectiveness. Considering the similarity of the second language learning process for all second language learners and since researches in this field have been conducted on language learners with different mother tongues, the findings of these researches can be applied to some extent in the context of teaching Persian to non-Persian speakers and guide teachers in this matter. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of encoding in the context of language teaching classes and the reasons for its use by second language learners. For this purpose, in this review study, the researches related to this issue were reviewed and after extensive study, the findings of some researches were presented and the strengths and weaknesses of each were stated. Examining the findings of previous researches showed that encoding in the context of the class is not only harmful, but also beneficial, because it helps the fluency of second language learners, the simultaneous learning of Persian language, and the transfer of meaning during encoding, although one should be careful about its use. Moreover, teachers should try to use Persian language more in the class so that enough input is available to Persian learners, but this does not mean to prohibit encoding. Finally, some suggestions for future research were presented.

This research aims to study the effect of gender, age and education of Arabic-Persian bilingual speakers on their frequency of use of code-switching types (Inter- sentential, Intra- sentential & Tag) in Nakhle-e-Taghi city. To this end, 80 male and female Arabic–Persian bilinguals were selected as research subjects through a non-random convenience sampling method. They consisted of two age groups, 20 to 40 and over 40, and belonged to two levels of education, one under diploma and the other diploma and higher than diploma. Then, their conversations were audio and video recorded, out of which the research data were extracted. The research data, containing 1022 cases of code-switching between Arabic- Persian languages, were analyzed in accordance with Poplack (1980). The frequency of use of code-switching types was enumerated and registered based on gender, age and education. Finally, the numerical data were analyzed in SPSS.27 software, using the test of chi- square 2. The results show that gender, age and education have effect on the frequency of usage of code-switching types.

Assessing the development of narrative skills is one of the practical and frequently used methods in research related to bilingualism, language acquisition, and language impairment. Tools designed based on the story grammar which focus on both cognitive and linguistic skills have attracted a lot of attention. This comparative study tried to investigate the complexity of Persian narrative structure of monolingual and Persian-Mazandarani bilingual children. The sample includes 16 bilingual boys and girls aged 4 to 6, and 16 monolinguals matched in age and gender. The independent and control variables are bilingualism, gender, and age. The picture story, ‘Frog, where are you?’ (Mayer, 1969) was used to extract data. The framework introduced in the test of narrative language (TNL-Pr) (Gillam & Gillam, 2009) was used to analyze the narrative complexity. The results showed that the complexity of narrative structure increases in both groups in older children, especially regarding the use of adverbs, conjunctions, mental verbs, and referring to consequence. Monolinguals generally recorded higher points in all groups especially in younger children. At macrostructure level, differences between monolingual and bilingual children in referring to initiating event, and internal response are significant. Monolinguals significantly produced longer narratives comparing to bilinguals and the difference is significant among children aged 4-4/5. Gender does not show any significant impact on the complexity of the narratives. Among monolinguals, WC and MLU were higher in narratives produced by girls, but among bilinguals it was the opposite. However, gender does not have a significant impact on the length of narratives.

The Planum Temporale (PT) is a cortical area posterior to Heschl's gyrus and within the Sylvian fissure. Hemispheric PT asymmetry of functional activation during hearing- or language-related tasks is well-established. Due to the role of the PT in language processing, we examined its contribution to phi-feature agreement processing.The theory of phi-features (Ackema and Neeleman, 2018, 2019) has proposed two core hypotheses for Number and Person agreements. First, R-expressions do not have Person, while pronouns do. Second, all Persons have a Person feature. By contrast, singular is the absence of a Number feature. This account is based, among others, on the evidence reported by Zawiszewski, Santesteban and Laka (2016) and Mancini et al. (2017), which proposes two generalizations for fMRI activation when the verb carries incorrect agreement. In sentences with R-expressions as subject, Person behaves qualitatively differently from Number and will have a quantitatively larger effect. In sentences with pronouns as subject, there are no qualitative differences between Person and Number, but Person will have a quantitatively larger effect. Recently, Meykadeh et al. (in press) addressed the case where R-expressions and Pronouns were used as subject, respectively, for Number and Person Violations and showed that Number Violations evoked more effects than Person Violations in posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus. The authors suggested that R-expression and pronoun processing are qualitatively different. It is currently unknown whether this pattern is also true for the PT area. Hence, in the present analysis we investigated the contribution of PT to phi-features processing of L1 and L2 sentences.The current study addresses the following questions:To what extent is left and right PT involved in phi-features processing by balanced bilinguals?How does the PT area contribute to L1-L2 Number-Person phi-features processing?Is the PT area equipped with feature-mapping mechanism to identify Number and Person features?To answer these questions, we adapted a bilingual task with an alternating language switching paradigm, in a population of balanced bilinguals and applied fMRI recordings.

Bilingualism affects many cognitive and emotional processes, and studies have shown emotional arousal statements influence language, specifically language selection. The present quasi-experimental research was accomplished with the aim of surveying the language selection of Turkish-Persian bilinguals at the time of processing happiness. For this purpose, using targeted sampling, we selected 20 Turkish-Persian sequential bilinguals (with an average age of 26) among university students of Tehran. Participants were first asked to fill language history, General Health, Handedness, and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule questionnaires; then they responded to a computerized task designed to induce happiness and determined the meaningfulness of Turkish and Persian words and non-words. By examining the performance of the participants in the test through repeated measures analysis of variance, it was revealed that individuals significantly spent more time on determining the meaningfulness of words in happiness inducing condition comparing to the normal one. Also, regarding the comparison of two languages in both conditions separately, paired comparison results demonstrated that participants’ reaction time to Turkish words in happiness inducing condition was significantly longer (Ps<0/05). As a result, it can be proposed that Turkish-Persian bilinguals are more involved with their first language in emotional states, especially happy state, and that Turkish has more and deeper emotional associations for them, and their emotional involvement is stronger for their native language than for their second language.

The putamen is a subcortical structure. However, neuroimaging studies have demonstrated the involvement of the left putamen in other language functions such as bilingual language processing. Some studies have also shown the role of the right putamen in higher-order language functions. The present reanalysis aims to investigate the role of the bilateral putamen during the L1-L2 sentence comprehension in bilinguals using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Hence, 36 Turkish-Persian bilinguals (21 females and 15 males), who had acquired their second language at the age of seven after entering school, were selected in a purposive sampling method to perform an auditory grammaticality judgment task within an alternative language switching paradigm. After detecting the activity of the bilateral putamen at the whole-brain level, in FSL, percent signal change was extracted per participant as an intensity measure and analyzed statistically in SPSS. At the whole-brain level, the findings demonstrated that the bilateral putamen was involved in the comprehension of syntactic structures during the alternating presentation of L1 and L2 stimuli. In addition, regardless of the hemisphere involved, the significant grammaticality effect for L1 as well as the increased sensitivity for L1-violation stimuli compared to L2-violation stimuli may imply the standard language dominance effect also in the putamen.

The purpose of the present study ،Study of language skills in Persian language teaching with emphasis on storytelling and storytelling in elementary school in bilingual area (some schools in Kermanshah) and the impact of story sources on Persian language teaching In these areas and feedback and challenges of this method. The phenomenon of multilingualism has long been one of the main issues of Iranian society. In our country, every year, a large number of students enter primary school with their native and ethnic language proficiency and with little familiarity with Persian ؛But from the past, our educational system has had a single linguistic encounter with all these children, and considers them all Persian-speaking .Bilingualism and bilingualism is a global phenomenon that exists in most countries of the world, which is the state in which a person is educated in a language other than their mother tongue. Language challenges of teaching in Iran in general and in bilingual areas in particular, One of the barriers to learning in most courses is especially in lessons that are directly related to reading, writing and comprehension. The purpose of this study is to study language skills in teaching Persian language by relying on stories in elementary schools in areas city and Negar has tried to provide feedback and educational challenges with Tomsk Give the story. The results of the present study show that the focus of the story on teaching a language other than the mother tongue due to the textural capacities, It makes it easy for children to compare the word Gani and to find equality in their mother tongue and educational language, As a result, this process plays positive feedback in language teaching and the breadth of the vocabulary of the learner.

Ethnic diversity in Iran results in language variety and it affects education from the first year of school; therefore it is necessary to take heed of this matter and to prevent disturbing bilingual children’s education progress for lack of deficiency in the Persian language. This study has been done to analyze the language skills of bilingual and graduated Persian speakers. Statistical society was the students of twelfth grade and the sample has been chosen with the cluster sample and random multistage method among these cities: Arak, Tabriz, Sari, Sanandaj, Shiraz, Yasouj, and Yazd. The research methodology was based on a survey. Besides descriptive statistics, in the inferential statistics part, the non-parametric tests of Mann-Whitney U and KruskalWallis and the parametric test of t-test and ANOVA were employed. Examining the quantitative and qualitative data proved that the results of evaluating Persian and bilingual graduates were meaningful in reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills and the Persian students functioned in all of the skills better than the bilingual students. These outcomes were exact even with adding gender, major, and comparison between the best score of bilinguals and the weakest score of Persian students. The meaningful differences between all of the skills demonstrated that the efforts made in the formal education years were not efficient enough. Based on language variety in Iran, the recommendation of this paper is a reconsideration of current educational programs, especially with paying attention to preschool and the first-third grades of elementary school.

Bilingualism is associated with structural adaptations of subcortical regions taking part in controlling multiple languages. The thalamus is a paired gray matter structure located near the center of the brain, regulating the information transmission to cortical regions. In a recent fMRI study, the sensitivity of the thalamus to grammatical and ungrammatical stimuli has been shown at whole-brain level in the first language (L1) of bilinguals. This study explored the activation patterns of bilateral thalamus in both L1 and L2 using a ROI-based approach. To do so, the percentage of signal change for grammatical and ungrammatical stimuli in L1 and L2 was extracted as the intensity measure per participant. Thirty-six Turkish-Persian bilinguals (21 women) who had acquired their L2 at the age of 7 were selected. Based on the Bilingual Dominance Scale, there was no significant difference between the proficiency level of participants in L1 (Turkish) and L2 (Persian). Participants carried out an auditory grammaticality judgment task in an alternating language switching paradigm while fMRI images were acquired. ROI-based results confirmed the grammaticality effect only in L1 and the left thalamus. Considering that L1 was the dominant language in this study and gave rise to larger reversed language dominance effects, it was suggested that the engagement of the thalamus in L1 is not associated with syntactic processing but instead may exert an overall monitoring and control function for language-specific cortical activities.

The present study investigated the effects of bilingualism and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) on children’s abilities to narrate a story. To this aim, the stories narrated by monolingual and bilingual Kurdish-Persian-speaking children with and without ASD were compared. They were given a set of 3 picture cards depicting a scenario and were asked to sequence the cards and tell a story. Then, their language productions (number of utterances and total number of words), macrostructures (appropriate sequencing of events, number of events mentioned, and coherence), and microstructures (character introductions, maintenance of referential terms, use of grammatical gender, and use of connectives) were measured. The findings showed that the bilinguals produced more utterances compared to the monolinguals despite having marginally lower receptive vocabulary scores in Persian. Also, the typically-developing children provided more coherent narratives. No significant differences were found in their microstructures. There were no decrements in the narratives of the monolingual and bilingual children with and without ASD. In fact, an increased number of utterances were found in the bilinguals’ narratives. The current findings suggested that bilingualism does not negatively affect narrative skills in children with ASD.