زبان شناسی اجتماعی

The present study investigates the European toponyms based on two linguistic criteria. The first criterion is the main factor for calling European countries; in other word, we try to determine the different factors of the European toponyms including social, political, geographical, religious and etc. The second criterion is related to Persian equivalences of European toponyms. For these sakes, 54 European country names extracted. The results of the first goal reveal that there are 6 factors for the European toponyms. Among them, the name of tribes and nations is the most popular one since is used in 28 European toponyms. Other factors are the name of Geographical feature or zone, the name of a person, the name of an animal, the name of a monument or the name of a natural element. The results of the second criterion also shows that there are 3 word formation processes for naming European toponyms including Borrowing, loan translation and coinage. The most popular one is borrowing which is used in 44 Persian equivalents of European toponyms. Loan translation is used for the formation of 7 European toponyms in Persian and only one of European toponyms is the result of coinage in Persian.

The present article, with an emphasis on vowel shift of /u:/ with /ʉː/, examines phonetic changes in the Kurdish dialect of the native Kurdish speaker Lilakhi immigrants living in Sanandaj to improve social status through the application of changes known as "phonetic strategies for prestige promotion." Therefore, the authors intend to gain a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of language change and their impact on social identity through the study of variables such as age, gender, and socioeconomic status. The research data includes 20 words in the Kurdish language in which the vowel under study is located at nucleus, and the distinction between them in the two dialects Lilakhi and Ardalani lies only in the phonetic manifestation of this vowel. The statistical population of the study also consists of 30 respondents who were selected through systematic sampling method and considering the equal distribution of gender, age and social class factors and they were asked to express each of the words they have in the form of a sentence or phrase. The results of the study show that the negative correlation between age and the use of the vowel /u:/ indicates a meaningful relationship.

 Onomastics is the study of personal names and has long been common in Iranian language research. However, social onomastics is a relatively new concept. This term is used both in sociolinguistics and in other fields such as sociology, anthropology and geography. So far, most researches have dealt with the etymology of personal names in these inscriptions. The purpose of this research is to investigate the onomastics of some personal names in Middle Persian and Parthian inscriptions based on Van Langendonck's theory. According to this theory, four categories of ethnicity, nationality, religion, and transnational affairs are considered in the selection of personal names. In this research, considering the nature of names, in addition to the mentioned categories, the category of mythological names was also added to this division. First, a selection of personal names in Middle Persian and Parthian inscriptions was collected and then classified according to the mentioned categories. The research results showed that mythological names had the highest frequency in these inscriptions. Then, in the order of national names, religious names are used the most. This shows that according to one of the most important theories of social nomenclature, myth played a significant role in the Sasanian society.

This research aims to study the effect of gender, age and education of Arabic-Persian bilingual speakers on their frequency of use of code-switching types (Inter- sentential, Intra- sentential & Tag) in Nakhle-e-Taghi city. To this end, 80 male and female Arabic–Persian bilinguals were selected as research subjects through a non-random convenience sampling method. They consisted of two age groups, 20 to 40 and over 40, and belonged to two levels of education, one under diploma and the other diploma and higher than diploma. Then, their conversations were audio and video recorded, out of which the research data were extracted. The research data, containing 1022 cases of code-switching between Arabic- Persian languages, were analyzed in accordance with Poplack (1980). The frequency of use of code-switching types was enumerated and registered based on gender, age and education. Finally, the numerical data were analyzed in SPSS.27 software, using the test of chi- square 2. The results show that gender, age and education have effect on the frequency of usage of code-switching types.

Literature, with various possibilities, deals with creating and narrating creative stories by involving experience and senses, and most importantly, by involving the dynamic mind of the potential audience, and thus confronts writers and artists with many options in how to create art. The purpose of this research is the cognitive analysis of grounding in the discourse of the story based on the conceptual fusion networks of Fauconie and Turner. Using the qualitative content analysis method and descriptive-interpretive approach, the present study examines the methods of adaptation and the constituent elements of the mixed conceptual network of the story of my bird from Fariba and Wafi. Fusion theory presents a systematic conceptualization of behind-the-scenes cognition that includes categorization, mappings, structural projections, and dynamic mental stimuli. The existence of multiple input spaces, various vital relationships such as identity, change, time and representation are among the things that give the bird a conceptually mixed structure. The results of this study emphasize the necessity of paying attention to the mind in discourse studies and show the extension of the application of the theory of conceptual mixing to analysis. The discourse of the novel can be effective in explaining the basic methods of literary texts

The purpose of the present study was to investigate non-manual features (NMF) that convey politeness in Iranian sign language. The data was collected through interviews with 18 deaf people (including nine men, and nine women), and six hard-of-hearing women from Tehran, Zanjan, and Anzali. All the participants used the Iranian sign language and were of different ages and educational levels. The questions of this research are in the field of three speech acts requesting, rejecting, and apologizing. Non-manual features are a complex aspect of all sign languages and perform a range of grammatical and paralinguistic functions, and the second is highlighted in this study. For linguistic analysis, sign orders and the type of words were used first, and then the use of non-manual features with each sign was checked. According to the findings of this research, to convey politeness / impoliteness through Iranian sign language, it is not enough to use signs, and NMF complements the meaning. Non-manual features include movement of the body, head, eyes and eyebrows, lips, chin and nose. The data from this study shows that the movements of the body, head, eyebrow, eyes, and mouth gestures are crucial in every three speech acts. Results show that Squint is the most used NMF across requests, Side tilt is the most used NMF across rejections and polite pucker has the highest frequency of NMFs in apologies in the Iranian Sign Language. The type and extent of use of these NMFs are context-dependent. Distribution of these NMFs depends on context: formal or informal and the variety of functions. This research proved that non-manual features act as the equivalent of prosodic in the Iranian Sign language. The results of this research can help sociologists understand the culture of the deaf community, sign language researchers understand linguistic factors, and translators provide fluent translation

Language, as a means of communication, is continually influenced by our society, which is why the reflection of social variables in our everyday speech is inevitable. Among different social factors, sociolinguistic researchers have extensively investigated the correlation between “gender” and linguistic categories to examine the language features of men and women. Lakoff & Bucholtz (2004) suggested that women’s speech is characterized by linguistic features such as precise color terms, polite forms (e.g., indirect requests), tag questions, and empathic stress. In this regard, Holmes (2013, p. 308) claimed that many of the features identified as the characteristics of women’s language are positive politeness devices expressing solidarity.Politeness and “taboo words”, on the other hand, have been the focus of many sociolinguistic researches, such as Jay (2009), Batisttella (2005) and Wardhaugh’s (2006). Jay (2009, p. 156) claims that both “gender” and “age” can affect word choice and frequency; men swear more frequently in public than women. As for age, the swearing rate peak in the teenage years and declines thereafter (Jay, 2009, p. 156). The present research aims to conduct a gender- and age-based study of “taboo words” in the everyday speech of Persian-speaking men and women and to answer the following questions:How does “gender” affect the frequency and use of “taboo words” in the everyday speech of Persian speakers?How the “age” of Persian speakers affect the use of “taboo words”?Which types of “taboo words” do Persian speakers use in their speech?

Startups are institutions create services to resolve the needs of society. Startups are trans-temporal and trans-spatial platforms that have fluidity and move within transfer discourse platforms. The introduction of these technologies into the flow of people's lives leads to changes in the lifestyle of people in the society. Produced lifestyles are tied to linguistic structures and supported through sociolinguistic structures. The main problem of this research is to see what effect and relationship the discourse systems of startups have on the lifestyle within social relations. With focusing on the semio-semantics approach and the qualitative analysis method which examines the way and conditions of using and organizing signs in shaping lifestyles in social life processes. Also, using, we try to show that the technological achievements of the modern world have led to a change in the consumption pattern. The results indicate that the discourse systems of startups in recent years have been able to create a social atmosphere where actors, with trust, participation and mutual relations, create a new lifestyle.

Shahriar's poetic work is inspired by the picturesque landscapes of Azerbaijan. Given Azerbaijan's historical reputation for its fertile soil conducive to agriculture and lush scenery, which have fostered a flourishing livestock industry and regional economy, the Heydar Baba collection showcases a variety of Azerbaijani terms and expressions specific to agriculture, animal husbandry, and avian life. This descriptive-analytical study, grounded in library research and oral literature, delves into the agricultural, animal husbandry, and avian vocabulary found in the Heydar Baba collection. The findings illustrate Shahriar's deep connection with nature, reflected in his extensive use of terminology related to these fields. Additionally, the geographic location of Azerbaijan has made agricultural and animal husbandry practices, including poultry farming and bird breeding, significant aspects of the region, with even the natural landscape influencing the nomenclature of rivers and mountains, as well as children's toys inspired by agriculture and animal husbandries, such as Alak-dulak, Qab-bazi, and Tokhm-morgh Bazi. Moreover, a lexical analysis reveals that some words have transcended literary boundaries, with certain terms long circulated among Azerbaijani speakers, having Persian origins and being distorted Persian terms like Baqcha, Yunja, Zemi, Gul, Dasteh Gool, Alcha, Armut, Tokhm, Tuleh, Ghaz, Qirqi, Bildirchin, Durna, and Urdak. Others, such as Meviz, Bagh, Gardekan, and Gulbesar, retain their Persian form. This study also highlights the metaphorical use of certain words, adding layers of meaning through similes, metaphors, or allusions, exemplified by Gulbesar. Lastly, the influence of nature is evident in the derivation of place names and even vegetables, like Qarah Kul, Qara Cheman, Dashli Bulakh, and Bulagh Uti.

Verbal violence is one of the main topics in the field of sociolinguistic studies. The purpose of this research is to study the dimensions of gender-based verbal violence based on Culpeper's perspective. The participants in the research were female employees working in the institutions in Tehran, who were selected based on purposive sampling. The data were collected through semi-structured interviews, and were subsequently categorized and analyzed based on Culpeper's social cognitive theory as a postmodern approach. The findings revealed both forms of verbal violence, namely, Bald On-record and Off-record, which include humiliation, insulting, blame-shifting, threatening, flirting, and, deceptive affection. Based on the findings, men use verbal violence purposefully, intentionally, and consciously, and women perceive verbal violence as rude, hostile, and irritating. Furthermore, women’s experience of gender-based verbal violence in the workplace shows that such behavior is a self-serving tool for men to benefit from gender stereotyping in order to attack women’s face, maintain and promote men’s face, advance their sexual harassment, and at the same time, excel in workplace competitions ahead of their women co-workers. The results also disclose how “language” that is affected by social norms, gender stereotypes, context, emotions, and individual desires can become more than a communicational tool, and be used as gender-based verbal violence in the workplace.

Corpus linguistics is one of the new methods in linguistics that studies language in language corpora. Sociolinguistics study the differences and similarities between (or in) different language varieties and reveals the impact of social variables on language productions. The present research discusses the role of sex in speech based on Baker’s (2010) corpus-based sociolinguistics approach. To this end, first a Baboli dialect corpus was developed and then the data was transcribed alphabetically. Then the text was translated into standard Persian. In order to investigate the role of sex, by controlling the age variable and also the topic variable of the corpus which was exclusively on life difficulties, the keywords of each sex group were identified by LancsBox concordancer program. Then, the keywords were categorized based on their semantic domains. The results revealed that sex differences played an important role in the representation of the life difficulties in the dialect.

The current study examines two prominent Iranian and British novels, namely Simin Daneshvar’s Suvashun (1969) and Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights (1847) through the theoretical lens of Elaine Showalter’s Anglo-American literary gynocriticism in order to comparatively investigate their social and cultural themes in relation to female identity. Literary gynocriticism is concerned with the figure of the woman as writer, the producer of gynotextual meaning, genres, and a feminine literary tradition. This paper argues that despite the spatial, temporal, and cultural distance between the two novels, a number of common themes can be distinguished in both. These include courtship, marriage, emotional conflicts, education, and striving for female identity, social role, and status. The characterization of the female protagonists in the two novels is aligned with society’s expectations, and the novelists’ protest against male domination and sexual discrimination seem, at best, cautious and conservative. Both of the novels portray the anxieties resulting from the protagonists’ individual position in relation to others and their status as “the second sex.” This shows that these anxieties trouble women around the globe.

In its old definition, onomastics, or the study of names, is a science that examines the etymology and meaning of proper names; however, in its more recent definition, it covers a much broader scope. Today, onomastics has several branches, like personal names, place names, animal names, commercial names and names in literature. In addition, it paves the way for interdisciplinary studies. As a result, it attracts an increasing number of researchers from different disciplines. This paper provides an overview of a selection of western institutions, regional and international conferences and congresses, scientific journals, academic/research centers and key references dedicated to onomastics. In the final section, the study of names in the western world is explored from a comparative standpoint and suggestions are offered to promote this branch of knowledge in Iran. This paper is especially useful for students, researchers and those interested in expanding their knowledge about onomastics in the western world.

"Generativity" was initially introduced by Denis (1838), who associated it with the concept of "being alive." Subsequent scholars such as Jespersen (1942), Darmesteter, Grimm, and others also linked Generativity to this notion. Drawing on the principles of Generativity, vocabulary production, and development occur within specific structures and stages. Generativity is depicted as a process characterized by gradability and gradual evolution, which at times introduces specific constraints that impede the creation of new vocabulary. This study delves into the word formation processes involved in shaping Quranic vocabulary and terminology, examining them through the lens of linguistic principles and generative theories. The generativity approach to various levels of word formation processes encompasses rules, constraints, and obstacles. Among the constraints that influence language in generating or updating vocabulary, factors such as "semantic, phonetic, morphological, syntactic, aesthetic, historical reasons, and extralinguistic factors" play a significant role. Semantic constraints, for instance, may restrict word usage due to negative semantic associations, the presence of loanwords can hinder the formation of new words with similar meanings, and semantic expansion in terms of conceptual meanings is also explored. Phonetic limitations and their processes are prevalent in the domains of recitation, vocalization, and eloquence within the language of the Quran. By observing these phonetic processes based on relationships and characteristics of uniformity, aesthetic sensations are evoked, creating a distinct conceptual framework in speech. Morphological constraints play a significant role in word formation, particularly in affix addition, manifesting in three primary ways: the base's affiliation with a specific morphological class, the dependency of affix addition on prior affixation of the base, and the suitability of the base morphology for affix addition. Morphological restrictions dictate that derivational affixes are exclusively applied to specific bases. Historical factors contribute to lexical changes, with shifts in social and cultural contexts influencing vocabulary evolution and imposing constraints. Extensive borrowing from other languages is a key obstacle to word formation in all languages. These constraints sometimes result in differences between specific concepts and terminologies in the Quranic language compared to those prevalent among the Arabic speakers of that era, prompting linguists to investigate the origins and developments underlying these words.

The systematic investigation and study of individual grammatical issues facilitate a more scientific and comprehensible approach to describing, analyzing, and instructing language. In Persian, verbs are categorized into five structural types. Compound verbs, aside from their syntactic function in a sentence, have long been a topic of contention among linguists due to their unique characteristics and distinguishing features. This extensive research, conducted over several years and based on a comprehensive corpus of 5500 compound verbs, delineates their attributes, classifications, and varied usage within the Persian language. The emphasis lies on the selection, application, and prevalence of these verbs, rather than on their potential constructions. Naturally, the actual number of compound verbs surpasses this figure, with novel compound verbs being coined depending on the context and communication needs. The data from this corpus is representative of over ninety percent of the compound verbs in contemporary Persian. Some of these verbs exhibit versatility, being adaptable to different contexts in diverse forms not exhaustively listed. By synthesizing the insights of prominent grammarians and linguists, this study elucidates the characteristics, circumstances, and applications of compound verbs. The findings underscore that compound verbs, owing to their amalgamative nature, are the most prevalent verb type, showcasing a wide array of combinations where numerous nouns and adjectives are fused with verbs. This type, characterized by its dynamic quality, underscores the integrative essence of the Persian language. A key method for identifying these verbs is through independent analysis of each sentence, particularly as many new concepts and foreign terms are integrated into Persian through verb combinations. Compound verbs can consist of more than two words and structurally resemble a blend of noun/adjective + verb, conveying a unified meaning. The formation of compound verbs involves a mix of simple, prefix, and compound verbs, totaling 84 verbs, with "Kardan" and "Shodan" being the most frequently used. Furthermore, many compound verbs transition into passive voice with "Shodan." The components of compound verbs exhibit three distinct placement conditions: in some instances, they are inseparable; in others, there exists a space between components without separation; and in many cases, the components are detached from each other, excluding the verb from the combination, thus significantly impacting contemporary spoken language through this segregation of elements

The Holy Quran, as a representation of profound grandeur and magnificence, is not only remarkable and miraculous in its content and essence, but also in its linguistic mechanisms and structural elements. The spaces between verses illustrate some of the most effective and captivating methods that, apart from the musical structure and rhythmic melody, establish harmony and coherence in communicating the message and substance of the verses. The organization of the final letters of verses (Al-Rawi letters) in forming connections and harmonies with the internal aspects of a verse sometimes adopts a disruptive and dissimilar structural shape. Examining and analyzing the variations in the final letters of verses becomes crucial from a sound perception standpoint. This research methodology emphasizes the aesthetic and semantic beauty that aims to affirm the textual beauty based on the endings of verses. Initially, the lexical and terminological meaning of the term "gap" and the explanation of the types of converging harmonies in pronunciation are discussed in Arabic. Subsequently, the primary focus is on the dissimilar and alternative aspects at the end of verses, with the presentation of examples and evidence of various types, indications, and semantic functions of sounds. The findings suggest that the realm of dissimilarity of converging end letters in the gaps has been accompanied by similar indications in a manner where they have presented the same indication by breaking down into details but have emerged in a dissimilar expressive style. In essence, changes in the surface structure, viewed from the perspective of converging end letters, are evident in similar indications, but the addressing style shifts from direct to absent or different assertion. Consequently, the gap in the Quran not only enhances the musicality of the verses but instigates changes that deviate some combinations, indications, and expressive styles from the norm. Hence, through varied linguistic structures, the connection, coherence, and systematic nature of the lines of Quranic chapters are interlinked.

This study aims to investigate language attitudes among Kurdish speakers in the western part of Iran. A questionnaire was adopted for collecting the data. Then the final version of the questionnaire was distributed among people in target cities. 450 people participated in this part and answered the questionnaires voluntarily. The results of language attitude showed that the Kurdish language has a very high social status among people in Sene (Sanandaj) and Kermashan (Kermanshah) and a high social status among people in Ilam. Regarding its institutional support, people believe that the Kurdish language, though vital and widely used with a positive attitude among its native speakers, requires more institutional support. Regarding Kurdish vitality, the results showed that, unlike Sene, the Kurdish language may die out in the future in Kermanshah and Ilam. Finally, the results showed that there was no significant difference between males and females in their attitude to the Kurdish language in Kermashan and Sene, but there was an obviously significant difference between males' and females` language attitudes in Ilam. Finally, some suggestions for further research were proposed by the researcher.

Persian proverbs are Iranian previous generations’ wise thoughts usually in short melodic linguistic and literary especially poetic form. They often have simple meaning and structure that makes them more memorable and easy to use in oral and written communications. Many articles have investigated Persian proverbs from different points of view. But not enough attention has been paid to the importance of these proverbs in enhancing sociocultural literacy and sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences as parts of Persian learners’ communicative competence. In this article, by the documentary method, it is paid to the role of proverbs in representing and learning some sociocultural features of Persian language (politeness, compliments, collectivism, etc.). Then, two things are suggested, a proverbial categorization from easy to hard, and Richmond’s (1987) revised model for comparing the similarities and differences between Persian proverbs and learners’ mother tongue proverbs. The results of a comparative study between Persian and Arabic proverbs in the Persian class of Arab learners are discussed.

Language can be studied from various perspectives. One of the methods for studying linguistic variations in society is examining cultural sources such as stories, novels, musical productions, poems, and ancient myths. Among the topics that have received significant attention in the media and have an important place in the representations is the concept “gender”, particularly the representation of masculinity or femininity. The representation of patriarchy has various positive and negative aspects and varies across different cultures. The portrayal of a powerful and influential man is influenced by the components of a culture and its role and position within that context. This study aimed to explore the representation of patriarchy in a positive form in ancient Persian poetry from the perspective of social linguistics. To achieve this, verses that have a clear connection with the subject matter of the research, that is, gender-based linguistic interaction, were selected. Using Barthes’ three-level semiotic analysis method, the representation of the male character and specifically the father, as well as the linguistic position of the father compared to other roles, were analyzed from the perspective of social linguistics. The results on that the ancient poetry showed the representation of male linguistic control, linguistic dominance of the father over other roles, the absence of dialogue, and the establishment of a framework for making requests from the central male figure (father), as well as gendered language in linguistic interactions. This representation is based on the ideology and patriarchy discourse in society, and although it has been considered positive in society and culture, it does not hold the same position and role in contemporary society.