ساختگرایی

The present article intends to study the narrative sequences of Iranian folktales from a constructionist perspective and by reflecting on and rereading the narrative from the perspective of Claude Bermon. Darab Nameh Beighmi (15th century) is one of the eloquent and valuable texts of Persian prose, which, in addition to epic narratives about ancient warriors and heroes, also pays attention to manifestations of folk legends centered on knights and romantic events around their personalities or lives. In this descriptive-analytical research, a sample of evidence has been selected from the text of the story, which can be adjusted to Bremon's model. For example, in the story of Jahan Afrooz, there are three sequences that create the main sequence or the whole narrative. The actions and events that follow in the story of Jahanfaroz have created a very coherent and character-oriented narrative. In addition, based on the patterns designed in this paper, three types of sequences considered by Bermon, including Enchainment, Enclave, and Joining, can be seen in the narratively analysis of the story of Jahan Afrooz. Thus, in the enchainment, enclave sequence, which is a set of continuous actions, the character is guided in the right path in the story, and in the part of the joining sequence, the reactions of the anti-hero and the restraining forces are in conflict with the actions of the hero and the main character of the story.

Constructivist philosophers are of the opinion that the revelations of a mystic are the manifestation of his mental background - including his desires and wishes. If we look at Rouzbihan's revelations in the book Kashf al-Asrar with this perspective, by putting the evidence together, we will see that one of the most prominent desires and wishes of Rozbahan that appeared in his revelations is "the desire to be a prophet" and what it means is to repeat the experience of being a prophet based on the model of the prophet hood of the Prophet of Islam (PBUH).

This research was done with the library research method and in the theoretical framework of constructivism, which is one of the most important approaches to mystical studies. Based on the analysis of the content of the book Kashf al-Asrar, which contains Rouzbihan's accounts of his mystical experiences, this article has tried to show how he sees himself as a person who has passed the rank of Sufis and the great saints of Islamic mysticism and his status has surpassed that of the prophets before the Prophet of Islam (PBUH) and has reached a stage where the experiences of the Prophet of Islam (PBUH) are repeated about him and God treats him as he treated the Prophet of Islam (PBUH). .

This similarity and equality with the Prophet of Islam shows itself in at least eight cases in Rouzbihan's Kashf al-Asrar book, among which Rouzbihan says that he became the "beloved" of God and that God speaks to him in the "Persian language". And he calls himself the recipient of "revelation" and talks about his "ascension" experience.

These textual evidences, along with the theme of one of his first revelations in which he hears a prophetic address from God, reveal the main lines of what we call "desire to be a prophet".

A structural analysis, along with an assessment of the inherent levels of textual permanence, enables the possibility of attaining a new interpretation based on the system governing the text. This branch of analysis can provide a special position for Quranic studies alongside other linguistic knowledge. The structural examination of the chapters of the Quran and its explanation based on structural dualities of co-occurrence and substitution is the subject of the present research. Therefore, the authors seek to uncover the semantic conflicts in the text and its relationships in the verses based on substitution and co-occurrence using a descriptive-analytical method and theoretical concepts of Ferdinand de Saussure. The investigations indicate that in this chapter, linguistic and semantic elements have been interconnected in a linear chain and replaced, leading to coherence, continuity, diversity, and expansion of meaning in various dimensions of the chapter "Al-Mulk." The major conflict in this chapter is between the omnipotent creator and the owned creation, within which other conflicts such as between rebellious disbelievers and obedient believers, and the characteristics and attributes of each, the conflict between the powerful deity and the powerless deity, and also subsidiary conflicts such as the conflict between death and life, heaven and earth are found at lower levels. The fourfold semantic axes of the chapter are represented in various linguistic forms and levels, including continuity of meaning, novelty and imagery, the style of restriction, rhetorical interrogation, repetition, and so on.

“Binary oppositions” are resulted from Saussure’s doctrines and indicates that the work’s intellectual totality is based on opposite pairs. Pairs including “black/white”, “truth/lie”, and “poor/rich”. Binary oppositions are seen within the substrates of the phenomena such as language, society, thought, behavior, and culture; makes them meaningful and generates communicational gateways, forming sign systems and special patterns. Binaries are effective in code organizing and highlighting the signs. “Ermia” the first novel written by Reza Amirkhani, is the description of a warrior’s mental challenges in matching teachings of the holy defense (Iran-Iraq War) with some facts of Iranian society after the security council resolution 598 that led to ceasefire and the people who were involved. The trace of binary appositions and its practical elegance are appreciated in the configuration of novel’s incidents. The present research applying a descriptive-analytical method, first of all explains three sets of codes associating with novel’s conflicting thoughts in order to access the hidden layers of text, then categorizes, decodes, and analyzes binary oppositions in two categories of “personalities” (Mostafa/Ermia, Ermia’s family/Ermia, Moammar/Ermia, Shahin/Ermia, Mostafa/other friends, the families away from war/the families involved in war, Kavoos/Ermia, Ermia in the past/Ermia of today) and “places” (the front/the city, north of city/south of city, Ermia’s trench/Ermia’s home, front/university, city/rock quarry) and finally explains the consequences of oppositional relations of signs within the formation of three viewpoints: “passive”, “responsible”, and “concerned”.

The subject of Persian grammar has been one of the topics of interest to experts in this field, including linguists and grammarians. The discussion of comprehensive grammar is also one of the most popular topics in this article, the subject of its preparation and compilation and why we have not witnessed the writing of such a work so far. Create and find answers to the author's almost unanswered questions about the comprehensive grammar approach and its preparation. The article consists of 6 sections, which are presented in the method of research libraries: problem-solving and questions, concepts of grammar and comprehensive grammar, background, review of educational (prescriptive) and descriptive approaches in grammatical writings and problems and solutions, and in the section Sixth or conclusion, the most appropriate solution is suggested.

Due to his destructive role Alexander is remembered as an evil and ominous figure in older Persian sources. But, due to the influence of the Greek mythology and culture, recent sources have provided his figure with an aura of greatness and virtue. Scholars well know that Alexander is not given a positive picture in Shahnameh, although they mention two evidences from the text which do not go with this total picture, namely his description as a brother to Darius III, and his being the subject of a long episode in Shahnameh, the latter being regarded as the sign of the high value put on him by Ferdowsi. In this article, we will use the structuralism approach to prove that the claimed brotherhood of Alexander and Darius III is not to compensate the defeat and restore national pride, but to serve as a satire against the rulers whose ineptitude and treason pave the ground for the coming of the invaders. The lengthy treatment of Alexander's character is also due to the fact that he is the founder of the long-lasting Seleucia Dynasty, regardless of how destructive his invasion was. Denunciations of his action and devaluation of his ancestry prove this argument. Here, research data have collected by analytical By library approach and have processed by analytical and descriptive methods. 

First Shaklovovsky introduced the concept and term for familiarization in his treatise, "Art as a Context", in 1917 (Mortazai, 2010: 35). Following him, Yakobson and Tininov described this concept as "alienation" (Ahmadi, 1993: 47). G.N. leech expresses the other angle of this view during the thematic classification. He considers reducing rule as a deviation from the norms of the normative language, and in a simpler sense, states that the poet creates his own poem by decreasing the rules used in his own language. Leech believes that highlighting can be done in two ways. One is a normative which is the violation of the rules governing the normative language, and another is increasing rule that adds rules to the rules of the Normative language (Sujudi, 2008: 18). But from the perspective of Leech, normative and increasing rule function some limitations. He believes that normative can only go as far as it doesn’t cause disturbance in communication (ibid.). Badil-ibn Ali Khaqani Sharwani was one of the first poets and the prominent Persian poetess of the Persian language (520-595 AH). Khaqani seems to have used all the language tools to promote his words so that his poetry shines on top of the literature.
Research In the present study, through descriptive-analytic method, in the framework of the school of constructivism and based on the Normative pattern of Leech, we examined various types of normative in Khaqani's poetry.
Discuss: 1-3 Structural critique
Structuralism first began with study of the structure of language. The scholars of this school believed that language was a social building, and that any culture would transform the narratives or texts to reach the semantic structures, and in this way, people could shape their own experiences. In other words, structuralism is looking for a way to describe the internal link through which meaning is created in a culture. If we want to return to the beginning of the history of structuralism, undoubtedly we should consider the most original beginning text of it, “ Boutiqa “ theory or Aristotle's Poetics or Aristotle poetry or Horus's poetry essay. When Aristotle says, "in the order of necessity, there are six elements in tragedy, that tragedy compounded of them, and its nature are obtained of these six elements" (Aristotle, 1369: 37).
2-3 Concept of construction and its history in Persian literature
It can be said that "the construct is a set of interactions of the components of a whole with each other such that each unit has the greatest role in relation to the other components" (Shafieikadkani, 1366: 10).
3-3 Structural features of literary work
The structural characteristics of literary works can be considered at three levels of cohesion, harmony, and luminosity.
Analysis of the levels: 1-4 Normalization of lexical language
This kind of normative is done in two ways of making strange vocabulary and sounds of meaningless vocabulary. This kind of normative has its first effect on meaning "(Sadegh Shahpar and Mahdinezhad, 2013: 56). Khaqani has used the two words "inside" and "outside" in the following words: Until you are like a mirror from inside dark and from out bright and you have such an attribute, don’t brag honesty (Khaqani,1368:1)
2-4 Syntactic normative
Ignoring some of the syntactic rules governing the normative language, such as the discrepancy between the verb and the subject, creates a syntactic normative. Kaqani has used this over language technique in his own odes. For example: If my breath would not follow me habitually, when I understood that I suppressed it. (Khaqani,1368:210)
Normal syntax of speech: 4-3 Phonetic Normative
In this kind of normative, "the poet changes the phonetic forms of vocabulary, which is not common in the normative language" (Safavi, 2004: 49). In the Khaqani’s Divan, the phonological normality has only been reduced to a phoneme. Example: navard (Khaghani, 1368: 24) instead of nayavard.
4-4 Writing Normalization
There is only in the contemporary modern poets poems.
4-5 Normative of the dialect
In this kind of normative , "the poet terminates in some idioms of a language or dialect other than the norm language, which makes the reader more familiar with the space and place of poetry and poetry, and creates intimacy that normal language words may not be able to" (Sangari , 1381: 79). Khaqani, for example, has used Turkish words and phrases in his own words: Tamghaj Khan (Turkish name): Keykhosrow was the leader of his people, Tamuqaj Khan destroyed the cities (Khaqani,1368:137)
6-4 Lightness Normative (stylistic)
Lightness normative is not seen in ancient Persian poetry.
7-4 semantic escape norm
Leech believes that defamiliarization occurs in the realm of meaning (Beigzadeh and Eibakabadi, 1396: 232). The domain of meaning as the most inflexible level of language is used in literary highlighting by poets more than other levels. In the following is mentioned a sample of these industries in Khaqani's odes.
A) Opacity: Opacity is one of the characteristics of Khaghani poetry: The time is like a butcher who has raised his knife to bloodshot, the lamb and the balance are available to separate the fat and dry. (Khaqani,1375:62)
Here, the mind means the lamb and the balance, but the purpose of the scale is Libra that it is in front of the ship (lamb).
B) Paradox: Oh beloved, give a fiery kiss from the lips like Amber (Khaqani:1375:113)
C) Allusion : When you come to love very close that you stay away from your human traits from the east to the west. (Ibid:1)
D) Symmetry: My day is black like the black dress of monks and every night inside of this dark prison, Im busy praying and moaning like monks. (Ibid:24)
E) Metaphor: Indigo uniform is metaphor of the color of the sky.
Lohrasb split the head of Goshtasb, Zal, the father of Rustam, sat down on the throne of the kingdom (Ibid:145)
Khaqani also frequently uses the diagnostic industry: The heart belongs to the high world, which does not have a terrestrial possession(Ibid:3)
Z) Innuendo: And because you are self-centered like an Asian rock, that's why youre guilty (Ibid:1)
A fiery tongue is innuendo of having a bitterness tongue.
4-8 Normative at a time
In this kind of normative, the poet escapes from the time type of the Normative language and uses the vocabulary and ancient syntactic constructs (Pahlavan-Nejad and Zaheri-Birigani, 2009: 118). It is not possible to judge this kind of Normative in the Khaqani’s court, and perhaps most of the vocabulary that is considered in his odes was common in his daytime language and literature. The word “Khanvar” is this kind of normative that means "bowl" in this bit: Now that life and opportunity of life have been lost, in this short time you will not find a bag. (Khaqani,1368::211)
Khaghani is one of the oldest ancient poets whose poems has a special prominence and diagnostic. These prominences are the result of his ingenious, mastery, and creative departure from the ordinary level of language. Using the Leech pattern in looking up Khaqani's language techniques, It was found that out of the eight linguistic abnormalities, three cases, the lexical anomalies, syntactically and semantically, have the highest frequency and the stylistic feature of this great poet is in this two aspects.

From the beginning of history, man has always believed in the substantial nature of binary contrasts. Perhaps for this reason, novelists have intentionally or unintentionally made use of this point in the narrative structure of their stories. This subject has sparked a special interest in structuralist theorists. One of the major categories of structuralist criticism is content analysis through the meaning of binary contrasts, which has been introduced by Gaston Bachelard in literary criticism, especially in narration. War stories form one of the narrative fields, which are a result of man’s close experience with binary contrasts and the main concern of which is working on the content. Therefore, They have been largely the subjects of structuralist criticism. Structuralist criticism helps these works, which have a wide range of hidden contents and signifieds in their contexts, get properly analyzed. “Golab Khanoom” by Qasemali Farasat is an example of war novels, which has took advantage of this category in its narrative structure. For this reason, it has been chosen as the subject of analysis and criticism in this study. The present research, first, attempts to explain the relevant theories, and then, analyze the content contrasts extracted from the context of the story with the help of narration elements, while looking at text samples.

“Homay-o-Humayun” by Khajou Kermani is an 8th century AH collection of stories relating the demanding journey undertaken by Homay, the Syrian prince, to reach his beloved, Homayoun, the Chinese princes. Based on the model of Vladimir Prop, this study intends to find the characters of the story and their functions and also to investigate the mythological sub-structures within the structure of the story. Previous studies solely regard the narrative aspect of the story and do not deal with the mythological aspect. The structure of the poem consists of six characters and eleven functions. The story ends with the success of the hero. This story, in some ways, has a mythical structure which has been extracted using mythological sources. One can look for the origin of some of these patterns in Iranian myths, and some others can be traced back in the mythology of other nations. The basic structure of the story takes form on defamiliarization.

“Homay-o-Humayun” by Khajou Kermani is an 8th century AH collection of stories relating the demanding journey undertaken by Homay, the Syrian prince, to reach his beloved, Homayoun, the Chinese princes. Based on the model of Vladimir Prop, this study intends to find the characters of the story and their functions and also to investigate the mythological sub-structures within the structure of the story. Previous studies solely regard the narrative aspect of the story and do not deal with the mythological aspect. The structure of the poem consists of six characters and eleven functions. The story ends with the success of the hero. This story, in some ways, has a mythical structure which has been extracted using mythological sources. One can look for the origin of some of these patterns in Iranian myths, and some others can be traced back in the mythology of other nations. The basic structure of the story takes form on defamiliarization.

In the 2nd half of the 20th century, story as a structure in language excited the attention of many literary scholars. Analyzing the structure of the myth, Claude Levi-Strauss proved that it is similar in this with language. And after discovering a set of similar correspondences in sentence and narrative, Roland Barthes claimed that discourse, too, can be analyzed structurally. He argued that a narrative is the outcome of the relations among its "actants" who are no longer considered as independent psychological entities but whose existence is the result of their relations with the other actants. In this stage, the correspondence of Sussurian linguistics with mythological ideas of Levi-Strauss on the one hand, and their agreement with narratological theories of Barthes on the other, that is, with the applicability of these principles in the analysis of literature, grounded the cancellation of traditional "frames of intelligibility" and the establishment of new frames of thought. And Tzvetan Todorov described an "absolute cause" in the typical modern narrative which is always absent from it, but which changes it to a space for a perpetual search of meaning. Yet, along with these improvements in structural narratologies, Jonathan Culler focused his attention on the production of meaning in novels. From the eye of Culler, it is via reading as an interpretive analysis that a novel produces meaning. With a view of encouraging the literary scholars to structurally analyze the Persian narrative, the present paper will attempt to provide an analysis of these methodologies. Also, for a sample work in structural analysis of fiction, Houshang Golshiri's "Naghagh-e Baghani" will be analyzed on the basis of Culler's structuralism.

The never-ending magical discourse of Hāfiz of Shiraz has become an artistic puzzle and through the analysis of his words، many have provided with recurring themes. Particularly، the ghazals of Hooshang Ebtehāj (H. A. Sāyeh) bear the rich textual and extra-textual resemblances to the ghazals of Hāfiz and declare a historical and inmost dialogue with the Hāfizian art and thought. In this paper، I aim to present dialogism to put Mikhail Bakhtin''s literary-social theory of the text in practical use by application of a Persian poetical tradition، «Javāb-Gooyee» and Sāyeh''s approaching to Hāfiz. By this we can also criticize some remarks on the decadence and imitational style of his poetry. In general، the Sāyeh’s dialogical Hāfiz-oriented ghazals will be studied intertextually and discursively on the basis of some views of structuralists as Roland Barthes and Julia Kristeva. I should conclude briefly that Sāyeh''s dialogism haunts between the text and the community. On one hand، his intertextual references are often restricted to the syntagmatic axis، especially to reproduction of lingual codes، rhetorical devices، and prosody of Hāfiz and on the other hand، his historical discourse، especially on three characteristics namely society، human، and love take a polemical stand against discourse of Hāfiz.

Structuralism mostly investigates narrative elements in stories. A structural narratologist basically intends to compile a coherent structure among other different aspects of a story. The present study investigates the structure of AmirArsalan story, the last important fragment of Persian folksy long story generation, according to some structuralist theories. According to Grard Genette, we can analyze AmirArsalan story at two levels of recite and narration. At “recite” level, it has been discussed based on narrative perspective. At “narration” level, the narrative structure has been investigated and then the similarities and differences have been mentioned compared to other folksy long stories. In the second part of narration level, its syntactic structure has been pointed out and we have tried to summarize the story characters, their acts, and manners in the most compact way.

Despite the existence of numerous works and hero-epics in Persian literature, it is noteworthy that they all have similar structures and consist of limited elements. Of course this is not a new subject. The structuralists like Levi Strauss, Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp, and Frazer, have already discussed it. The present article studies ‘kin combat’ in the poems of: ‘Rostam and Sohrab’,’Borzunameh’,’Jahangirnameh’, based on a structural approach. According to findings of the research, the common fixed elements of these works are as follows: accidental visit of the hero to a foreign land, his accidental meeting with a daughter in a foreign land, his marriage abroad, hero’s leaving his wife, giving her a token, birth of an extraordinary baby, child’s departure to his father’s land, assistance of the father’s enemies’ to him, deception, defeating father’s vanguard army by child, father being called by the king to fight the child, asking each other’s names, triple combats, child introducing himself to father.

Some literary and linguistic approaches to literature confine "reading" to a merely " close reading" of the text. In " close reading", it is supposed that the "meaning" or "effect" of the literary text should be looked for within the text itself. In terms of a "grammer" or an underlying "system" determining the from of the text. The structuralist approach to literature is one of these approaches.Employing the Saussurean methodology for the study of language as a model, it. Tries to discover the "meaning" within the text, disregarding the role the world outside may have in the formation of the "meaning" of the text.With a specific attention to some dtructuralist and poststructuralist studies on language, meaning and literature, this paper will attempt to show that such a "reading" of the literary text is "inauthentic" and doomed to failure because it is isolated from the real- life world.The reason to overco me the weaknesses and shortcomings of structuralism, poststructuralism itself is of a nature vulnerable to the fallacy of "close reading", although it is quite capable of providing new horizons for an authentic reading of literature.