شاهنامه

With the gaining power of the Turkish and Arab people and their political and religious control over Iran, the Iranian public, realizing the danger of identity collapse, came to an identity confrontation with the dominant nation collectively. The main manifestation of this confrontation took place in the field of language and led to the construction of linguistic actions, the masterpiece of which was the Shahnameh. In this study, considering the theory of history of mentalities, which seeks to explain the spirit of the times and the national spirit in historical periods by finding intellectual signs from literary and historical sources and interpreting them, the role of the Iranian public and identity in preserving and surviving the Persian language has been explained in a descriptive-analytical manner by introducing examples of Iranian public linguistic efforts during the Ghaznavid and Seljuk periods. The results of the study show that in the identity conflict between Iranians and the dominant ethnic group, which was accompanied by the religious prejudices of the rulers and the superiority-seeking view of the Arabs, the Iranian public identity led to the preservation of language as a national unifying factor alongside other identity components such as Iranian culture, beliefs, and rituals. This effort has been manifested in numerous linguistic actions and ultimately led to the emergence and spread of the Shahnameh as a collection of national culture and identity in the field of language.

Of all the pre- and post-Islamic sources that have dealt with the life and personality of Zahhak, the most detailed narratives are those of the Naqals of the Shahnameh. Although these narratives follow Ferdowsi's Shahnameh in terms of structure and general framework, they contain very rare stories and allusions, the examples of which are rarely found in ancient sources. This research, which has been conducted using a descriptive-analytical method and using epic, historical sources, and narrative scrolls - printed scrolls and some manuscripts of narratives that have not yet been published - addresses the untold parts of Zahhak's story in the Naqals' narratives and recounts stories and allusions that are unprecedented in the Shahnameh and heroic literature. The results of the research indicate that the unspoken parts of the story of Zahhak, as narrated by the Naqals, are either the inventions of the storytellers and Naqals, or they have their roots in some references in ancient texts, other than the Shahnameh, that have changed, or they have imitated the stories of epic and mythical characters.

The perfect human being and presenting a clear and vivid picture of him are controversial topics in the humanities, including literature and psychology. Psychological theories such as Jung"s shadow and mask archetypes, Adler"s lifestyle, and Maslow"s hierarchy of needs are some of the theories that can be easily studied and examined in some works of Persian literature, including Ferdowsi"s Shahnameh, which has a human-centered nature. An examination of the characters in this work shows to what extent Iranian man has achieved human growth and perfection in past eras and to what extent he conforms to the personality patterns of the field of psychology. In this regard, the present article aims to examine and psychologically study the personalities of the kings of the Shahnameh from the perspective of the theories of Jung, Adler, and Maslow, to clarify to some extent the reasons for some of the thoughts, words, and actions of the kings for the audience and to help the reader achieve a better understanding of the overall stories.

This research was conducted based on the descriptive-analytical method and its data was provided based on library studies.

Ferdowsi, like a modern expert novelist, while organizing the general aspects of the stories and the unique scenes of celebration, sadness, and joy, while paying attention to his speech, makes the characters of his story show the effect of human emotions on decision-making in a very wise way. With such psychological works, Ferdowsi shows us the innermost nature of the heroes of the Shahnameh. He is very precise in doing this and insists so much that it can be said that no word is uttered by the characters in his work that he has not shown us the psychological-emotional background for uttering it.

From Ferdowsi"s perspective, Jamshid and Zahhak have the archetype of the shadow and the mask, and Fereydoun and Kaykhosro have the archetype of the wise and wise old man. Also, Kaykavoos is more than any other king a prisoner of the archetype of the shadow, who eventually loses his life to his desires and greed. From the perspective of Adler"s lifestyle theory, Jamshid is an example of active and constructive kings, and Zahhak is an example of inactive and destructive kings. Also, Fereydoun"s personality, in contrast to Zahhak"s personality, is one of the most complete personality models based on Maslow"s theory. In this work, Fereydoun as a transcendent personality and Zahhak as a neurotic or unhealthy personality objectively represent the two points of the base and the top of Maslow"s pyramid.

On a social dilemma, the actor faces a conflict between two options: non-cooperative (seeking immediate self interest) and cooperative (seeking collective interest or long-term self interest through collective interest). The pros and cons of each way must be evaluated to make a rational choice. This research aims at explaining the characters' actions on social dilemmas in Shahnameh based on the rational choice theory and using a descriptive-analytical method. The results show that in Shahnameh, characters have been on a social dilemma whether or not to give yes/no response to children's marriage proposal, to send or not to send hostages and to save one's life or protect the country in the battlefield. Evaluating the consequences, they chose the most advantageous option for themselves and the community. Therefore, actors' rational choice has been of the cooperative type and their choice has been an interest-oriented one. Their decision-making rule is both the rule of maximum such that the king of Yemen, Afrasiab, and Rostam determined the worst consequences of each option and then opt the best option among the worst, and the expected benefit rule such that on the dilemma of Zal and Roudabeh wedding, Sam chose the consequence with the maximum expected interest.

In Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, Goudarz, the son of Kashvad, is one of the famous heroes who appears for the first time in the story of the Mazandaran War. He plays roles by accompanying Iranian heroes in the battle against Turanians and non-Iranians. Following the death of many of his sons and grandsons in the beginning of the kingdom of Lohrasb, he leaves the story. Goudarz, who plays nearly seventy roles in the Shahnameh, is a powerful, considerate, wise and vengeful general, who can be deemed as one of the most prominent heroes of the Shahnameh next to Rostam. Goudarz's role in scrolls and oral narratives of the Shahnameh is much bigger and more important than his role in the text of the Shahnameh; he performs acts that have not been mentioned before in epic literature. Thus, the present study seeks to depict his life from birth to death. The study is conducted by examining a collection of scrolls and oral narratives of Shahnameh and showing the narratives and references about his life and deeds, which are unprecedented in Shahnameh and heroic literature.

Norman Fairclough"s critical discourse analysis is a new approach in discourse analysis studies that has attracted the attention of many humanities researchers, especially in literary studies, in recent decades. The literature of nations can be well analyzed and interpreted in the framework of linguistic criticism and critical discourse. The legend of Jamshid in the Shahnameh and the story of Prometheus in Greek mythology are among the two mythological stories that, with many common themes, show the dominant discourse of the battle of good and evil, moving away from the Yazidi sphere and trying to balance power. The main goal of the upcoming essay is to analyze and investigate the myth of Jamshid in the Shahnameh and the myth of Prometheus from Hesiod"s system based on Fairclough"s critical discourse analysis approach.

The research method in this article is descriptive-analytical based on library studies and using linguistic criticism with Fairclough"s critical discourse analysis approach in order to examine two mythological stories of Jamshid from the Shahnameh and the myth of Prometheus from Hesiod.

The findings of the research indicate that at the level of describing factors of lexical cohesion (repetition), contrast and synonymy, proportionality and grammatical coherence have been considered in both stories. At the level of interpretation based on the principle of intertextuality, both stories have common roots and bases of meaning, and at the level of explanation, the story of Jamshid and Prometheus is a reflection of the social structure of the mythological and ancient era.

At the level of description, lexical cohesion is in the form of repetition of nouns and pronouns, which, in terms of ideology, emphasizes and relies on the situational context of Jamshid and Prometheus. The semantic proportions in both stories serve to emphasize the nature and character of the two, and the words that convey power, warfare, war tools, opposition between good and evil, and goodness and evil have been given more attention. In the field of interpretation and explanation, both stories have a lot in common, including Jamshid and Prometheus" imprisonment and the anger of Zahak and Zeus. Deletion and replacement, semantic contrast, the chain of the same class and reference all in both stories are in line with the ideology of Jamshid"s power and Prometheus" rebellion against Zeus. Also, the conceptual and intertextual similarities between the two stories at the level of explanation and the battle between good and evil at the level of interpretation in both stories, which are the result of the social action of the mythological era man, are important.

Modern epic poetry is one of the major movements in contemporary Persian poetry, whose epic characteristics have transformed in line with changing historical conditions. Ahmad Shamloo, Ekhtiar Khavan, Siavash Kasrai, and Shafiei Kadkani are among the most prominent figures of this movement, whose epic features stand out more than other contemporary poets. In this study, to describe the transformation of the epic in line with new expressive needs, the epic features of the poetry of the aforementioned poets, along with the most notable poets of the Revolution such as Nasrollah Mardani, Hamid Sabzevari, and Mousavi Garmaroudi, are categorized into three groups: content features, linguistic features (the selection of words and phrases appropriate for the epic theme, the antiquity of phrases and syntactical structures), and literary features (epic atmospheres, exaggeration, and the magnificent rhythm and music of the epic). This research is a theoretical and qualitative study, and the most suitable method based onthe subject and objectives of the research is the qualitative-analytical approach. In this method, to gather information, the technique of note-taking from available resources in libraries was used, and to draw conclusions or inferences, the method of concept and text analysis was applied. In most contemporary poets (especially before the Revolution), a deep admiration for Iran leads them to focus on the glorious and majestic era of ancient Iran, causing every element connected to the homeland to manifest in their poems. Epic, mythological, ritualistic elements, and even mythical creatures and epic tools sometimes appear with fanatical anger—particularly in the poetry of Ekhtiar Khavan—sometimes with an optimistic and logical perspective—in Siavash Kasrai’spoetry—sometimes in a peaceful manner alongside Islamic elements—in Shafiei Kadkani’s poetry—and sometimes with a tone of admiration and pride—in the poetry of Tabriz and Nima Youshij. In general, an analysis of the data leads to the conclusion that thereare similarities and differences in terms of structure and content between the ancient epic of Ferdowsi and the modern epic. From a linguistic perspective, the use of epic words is evident in both types of epic poetry; similarly, from a literary perspective, the use of common meters, internal and external music, exaggeration, and epic emotion is seen in both types of epic. Froma content perspective, patriotism and defense of the homeland are common aspects of both types of epic. The significant differencebetween ancient and modern epics lies in the content of modern epics’ connection with social and political issues, which is a matter that holds less importance in ancient epic poetry.

Literature is the creative application of language. New linguistic sciences revitalize language, as words do not simply manifest with meanings that have existed for centuries. New ideas and innovative techniques explore the undiscovered mysteriesof a literary work. One of the modern approaches to uncovering textual beauty is layered stylistics. Layered stylistics is a contemporary method for analyzing literary texts. In the present study, the descriptions of Rostam in the story of Rostam and Esfandiyarare analyzed based on layered stylistics. Stylistic features are examined across five layers: phonological, lexical, syntactic, rhetorical, and ideological, while the content of the text is simultaneously analyzed. Hakim Abolqasem Ferdowsi is a renowned poet associated with the Khorasani style; therefore, his poetry serves as a suitable foundation for identifying the characteristics of his era’s poetry as well as Persian epic poetry. In the phonological layer, Ferdowsi utilizes the music of speech, syntactic rhythms, and pronunciation techniques. In the lexical layer, he artistically emphasizes words based on the characters and their varying meanings. In the syntactic layer, he employs diverse word arrangements. In the rhetorical layer, he achieves the pinnacle of eloquence and clarity by employing principles from semantics, rhetoric, and literary devices, without artificial embellishments. In the ideological layer, both consciously and subconsciously, he reflects his personal perspectives, beliefs, and the fundamental values of the Iranian people.

Neo-epic poetry is one of the main currents of contemporary poetry, whose epic features have been transformed according to historical conditions. Ahmad Shamloo, Akhavan Sales, Siavash Kasra’ei and Shafiei Kadkani are among the most brilliant figures of this trend, whose epic poetry features are more impressive than other contemporary poets. In this research, in order to describe the transformation of the epic, according to the new expressive needs, the epic features of the poems of the mentioned poets along with the most prominent poets of the revolution such as Nasrallah Mardani, Hamid Sabzevari and Mousavi Garmarudi are divided into three categories: content features, linguistic features (choice of words and combinations) appropriate to the epic theme, the oldness of syntactic structures and combinations) and literary features (epic spaces, exaggeration, epic weight and magnificent music).

The current research is a theoretical and qualitative type of research, and the best method is the qualitative-analytical method according to the research topic and its goals. In this method, the phishing method is used from the resources available in libraries to obtain information, and the concept and text analysis method is used to draw conclusions or inferences.

In most of the contemporary poets (especially before the revolution), infatuation with Iran leads them to the glorious era of ancient Iran and causes every element connected with the homeland to manifest in their poems. Epic, mythological, ritual elements and even imaginary creatures and epic tools sometimes with fanatical anger and roar - mostly in the poetry of the Brotherhood - and sometimes with a hopeful and logical look - in the poetry of Siavash Kasra’ei - and sometimes peacefully alongside the Islamic elements - in the poetry of Shafi'i Kadkani - and sometimes with his cute and proud language - is present in Nimayoshij's poems of Tabari.

In general, from the data analysis, it can be concluded that there are similarities and differences in terms of structure and content in Ferdowsi's old epic and new epic. From a linguistic point of view, there is the use of epic words in both types of epics; Also, from a literary point of view, the use of common weights and internal and external music, exaggeration and epic emotion can be seen in both types of epics. From the point of view of content, patriotism and defense of the homeland are common aspects of both types of epics. The major difference between the old and the new epic is the content of the new epic with social and political issues; Something that was less important in the ancient saga

Epic literature describes heroic deeds, chivalry, chivalry, and sacrifice in the cause of the homeland. Kings and heroes are always two main and important elements in epic literature, which are especially influential in wars and their command. It seems that the type of relationship between kings and heroes can affect the command of war and bring it closer to failure or success. This article examines and compares the effect of the relationship between kings and heroes on the command of war in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh and Asadi Tusi's Garshasbnameh.

The research data collection method is library and document-based, and the research method is analytical-descriptive; the statistical population is Ferdowsi's Shahnameh and Asadi Tusi's Garshaspnameh.

The study of the relationship between kings and heroes in Shahnameh and Garshasbnameh shows that kings and heroes in these two epic works, according to the events and incidents that occur in the heart of the stories, experience various types of relationships, both interactive and confrontational, with each other, and this position is very effective in commanding wars. Based on the independent king and hero model, the people are the main commanders of the war who fight with their opponents (the unjust kings) and achieve victory. In fact, when the heroes and kings separate from each other, the people, in the form of the first heroes, take over the command of the wars, and it is obvious that these wars are of an internal and internal nature and are formed against the king of the land. It seems that the popular uprising and agitation gradually manifests itself in the form of heroes supporting the people, and this time the heroes fight the enemy not against the kings but alongside them, and this solidarity presents the most desirable command model.

The relationship between kings and heroes in these two epic works is diverse and varies according to time, place, and motivation, but the heroes always have a more moderate and adaptable face, and ultimately, it is these heroes who, in order to maintain unity and national interests, come to terms with the king and spend most of their strength and power on foreign wars and avoid civil wars over power. Command in these two works was different according to the capabilities of the heroes of each region, but a single method is reported throughout the work. If the king himself did not directly participate in the war, he chose one of the famous heroes to be the commander-in-chief of the army by writing a charter or giving the seal of command, which confirms the ideal model of the king and the hero together.

A major aspect of ontology of human in a myth is how this is founded on good and evil. In a constant conflict between the forces of good and evil, good has eventually overcome evil. This forms a foundation based on which one can interpret creation of human, human life in the universe, human’s connection to his being, and his eventual fate. The present paper takes a descriptive approach to a comparative analysis of the myths portrayed in Ferdowsi’s Shāhnāmeh and the Indian myths depicted in Mahābhārata, with the findings point to some similarities between the two. In both of these works, the foundation of good and evil has influenced genesis and creation of human, the purpose of human creation, and how human relationships develops in families or across a nation. The forces of evil, embodied as dīvs (demons), Ahrīman (destructive spirit) or evil characters, are in a constant battle with the forces of good. But eventually based on the purposes of human creation in a myth, the forces of good have won the fight as they are of a good essence and the nature of their existence come from Ahūrā. The conflicts between Keyumars and Ahrīman, Fereydun and Zahhāk, and the people of Iran with the people of Tūrān in Shāhnāmeh or similarly the battle between the Kurus and the Pandavas clearly exemplify how human ontology is based on good and evil. In this analogy, the Pandavas and Iranians have been created of a good essence and are intended to the forces of evil, and although the evil temporarily prevails, eventually the forces of good overcome to begin a period of goodness.

Abulqasem Ferdowsi is one of the great epic poets of Dari Persian literature who devoted his life to writing the Shahnameh and completed it in thirty years and brought the history of his ancestors to life. He was born in the year (325 Hijri) in Deh Baj, Tus Province, Khorasan. His name has been known by some historians as Mansour and his father's name as Ahmed, but he is more famous with the surname of Abulqasem Ferdowsi. Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the greatest epic work of our people, is one of the great books of the history of a thousand years of Dari culture and literature. The Shahnameh is not a book that only describes the heroes, the battlefield and the campaign, and the defeats and victories of the heroes. In this work, the universal repetition of moral, philosophical and scientific patriotic ideas is very impressive.In this research, some illustrations of the Shahnameh have been analyzed in a descriptive and analytical method using library sources, and the result that Ferdowsi has used poetic images in the Shahnameh shows the power of the poet's imagery and imagination.

This article argues that despite differences in language, setting, and cultural context, the three narratives—Siavash (from the Shahnameh), Hasanak Vazir (from the Tārīkh-i Bayhaqī), and The Lion and the Cow (from Kelileh and Demneh)—each serve as a literary criterion of their respective time and culture. Structurally, however, they revolve around the same core motif: the destructive cycle of jealousy and conspiracy orchestrated by their negative heroes (Garsīvaz, Būshal, and Demneh), who manipulate the protagonists into downfall. These villains incite the antagonistic figures (Afrasiab, Mas‘ud, and the Lion) to provoke and ultimately execute the tragic killings of the virtuous heroes—Siavash, Hasanak, and the Cow. Through this shared framework, the narratives reveal a universal archetype of betrayal and power dynamics.

In the Shahnameh, there is a section titled "A Chapter on the Creation of the Sun and the Moon," in which the verses describe the sun and the moon. At first glance, these verses and their arrangement seem to have no clear connection with the verses that come before them, leading some to believe that this section may have been added later to the Shahnameh.This research is analytical-descriptive in nature and occasionally uses semiotics and symbolism to explore the deeper dimensions of a seemingly simple text. The findings of this study show that the content of these verses symbolically reflects the beliefs, worldview, and philosophical and mythological perspectives of ancient Iranians; particularly the struggle between light and darkness, and good versus evil. Just as the creation stories in ancient Iranian texts portray a battle between Ahura Mazda and Ahriman, in these verses from the preface of the Shahnameh, without directly naming them, the poet artistically uses symbols that reflect the same mythological and philosophical ideas.Some of these ancient beliefs have been echoed in historical and literary texts from the Islamic period of Iran, both before and after Ferdowsi. These references help us better understand the meanings behind the concepts he used. Furthermore, this style of praising the sun and the moon is connected to the philosophical discussion of the precedence and succession of day and night in the worldview of ancient Iranians; a theme that can also be seen in texts from Ferdowsi's era.

The ironic combination of "Derafshi shodan/kardan" in the meaning of "to be infamous" was used for the first time in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, and it has no history in other poetry and prose works before that. The questions that arise when encountering this combination are: what connection exists between the words of the combination (true meaning) and its ironic meaning? In the creation of this ironic combination, what interpretation and idea did Ferdowsi have of the Derafsh, and how did he perceive its presence on the battlefields, which caused him to bring out the ironic concept of "infamy" from it? The findings of this study indicate that the use of "spear" in a special way on the battlefield, to perform martial arts, was the origin of the creation of this ironic combination. The words of this combination convey correctly not only the true meaning of irony, which means getting into the shape and form of the flag but also its ironic meaning, which means being infamous. To create this ironic combination, Ferdowsi recreated the real world of the epic in his mind and language, expressed the image he perceived from the epic, and narrated it with the most suitable words for the audience in a comprehensible way.

Riddle is an old literary genre which always originates in oral lore and in a specific cultural context. Riddles in Shȃhnȃmeh are considered to be a continuation of the riddle tradition in the Middle Persian literature and old Avestan texts. In this paper, I have studied them according to both literary genre theory and the history of literature.

Many scholars have written on the topic, among whom the following are more important:Kaivola-Bregenhøj (2018) discusses different aspects of riddles as oral lore, including definition, formulae, subject, function, and etc. Windfuhr, G. (2014-2015) specifically discusses the riddling tradition and its evolution through the history of Persian literature. A short part of his work is dedicated to the riddles in Shȃhnȃmeh. Aghakhani bizhani and Sadeghi (2018) analyze and categorize different tests and examinations in Shȃhnȃmeh, including the examinations of intelligence.
Mokhtari, M. (2000-2001) analyzes the riddles in the story of Zȃl in Shȃhnȃmeh.
Tafazzoli, A. (2000-2001) categorizes and discusses different genres in the history of the pre-Islamic literature of Iran.
Seyed-Ghorab, A.A. (2010) examines the Persian literary riddles, “composed between the tenth and the twelfh centuries, and their link with the genre of literary description (vasf)” (p. 11). The riddles in the story of Zȃl are the only examples of this genre the author discusses.

First, I define the concept of “riddle” regarding the theory of literary genres. Then I explain its main problem, being not inclusive and exclusive. Therefore, I modify the given definition regarding the history of literature. Attaining a relatively covering definition, I say that there are at least eight parts in Shȃhnȃmeh which contain riddles.

A riddle as a literary genre in Shȃhnȃmeh is a verbal traditional expression in the form of questions and answers between one riddler or more and one riddlee or more, between whom there is a political or social tension. Sometimes the question is metaphorical and paradoxically or ambiguously describes something which is supposed to be guessed by the riddlee. Sometimes the question must simply be answered convincingly and reasonably. The goal is to examine the intelligence of the riddlee. This definition excludes all the practical examinations of intelligence and wisdom in Shȃhnȃmeh, simply because they are not “verbal”. Furthermore, it includes many pieces of advice (Andarz), just because they are in the form of questions and answers. This is where the two genres formally and thematically overlap. Furthermore, it’s possible to confuse the riddle as a genre with another genre called “Monazereh/Mofakhereh” (debating and boasting), regarding the form of question and answer and a competitive context. However, these three genres are categorized separately in the history of pre-Islamic literature. To avoid such confusion and to keep the well-established categorization, it’s better to redefine the riddle as an examination, whether verbal or practical, of intelligence and wisdom. A verbal riddle is what was said above. But a practical one is when a riddler does something mysterious and ambiguous and the riddlee is supposed to guess what it means. Based on the goal, regarding the context, and according to the form, this definition is more covering.

The pre-Islamic literary tradition of riddling has been maintained in Shȃhnȃmeh, including different examples which can be analyzed and categorized based on different approaches. A historical approach helps us study the riddles of Shȃhnȃmeh as a joint, where the pre-Islamic riddles connect with the post-Islamic ones. An approach of literary genres, however, can help us compare them to the riddles of world literature. According to my study, there are at least eight examples of riddling in Shȃhnȃmeh, some of which have formal and thematic similarities to some parts of Mēnōg-ī Khrad, a book of advice (andrz-nȃmeh) of the Pahlavi literature, and to some parts of Mādīgān ī Yōšt ī Fryān, a typical example of riddling and debating genre in the Pahlavi literature.

This research examines the portrayal of Hakim Abul-Qasim Ferdowsi and his poems in publications affiliated with the Tudeh Party. Despite its importance, there is little research on the subject of literature in the Tudeh Party of Iran. The few existing studies either focus on works after the 1953 coup and do not pay attention to the early years of the party’s formation and its first period of legal activity (such as the article “The Influence of the Tudeh Party on Iranian Fiction Literature (1953-1979)” (Javadi Yeganeh et al., 2012: 20-1)) or, apart from a few famous publications, do not refer to the party's publications, which were the most important tribune for the Tudeh Party of Iran (such as “Research on the Intellectual Foundations of the Tudeh Party’s Literary Theory (1931-1951)” (Farashahi-Nejad, 2019: 85-109)).

Research on the literary content of the Tudeh Party’s publications has also not examined the presence of classical Persian literary figures in the Tudeh Party’s publications (such as “Red Literature, List of Literary Content of Publications Affiliated with the Tudeh Party of Iran, October 1941 to August 1953” (Mohammadi and Haji Aghababaei, 2024); “Marxist Critique of the Stories of the ‘Bidari-ye Ma’ Journal (Organ of the Women’s Organization of the Tudeh Party of Iran, 1944-1948)” (Mohammadi and Haji Azizi, 2021); “Methods of Influence of the Tudeh Party on Contemporary Iranian Literature” (Mohammadi and Haji Aghababaei, 2023)).

This article aims to examine Ferdowsi and his valuable work Shahnameh from the perspective of the Tudeh Party’s publications through a descriptive-analytical method by reviewing the publications Nameh-ye Rahbar, Nameh-ye Mardom, Sogand, Payam-e No, Bidari-ye Ma, and Maslahat. Analysis: Since “literature” in the Tudeh Party’s publications has always been important and considered for attracting various segments of society, promoting party ideas and goals, and ultimately softening the dry atmosphere of political news and ideological articles, the leaders of the Tudeh Party, following the instructions of the Soviet Communist Party, sought to spread the features approved by the Communist Party among contemporary Iranian literary works. Given the strong propaganda tools and newspapers and publications at their disposal, they were largely successful at times and managed to align many poets and writers with them. They used various methods to exploit the potential of leading Iranian writers and poets in alignment with themselves and to express and implement their cultural and literary views. On the other hand, not all poets and writers who were of interest to the Tudeh Party and whose works were published in their publications were contemporary writers; sometimes works of classical literary figures were also published and it seems that only those aspects of these figures’ works that aligned with the thoughts of the publication’s writers and the party’s ideological line were considered. It can be said that the Tudeh Party’s publications’ interpretation of publishing such works was in line with their combat goals and to highlight the themes of anti-oppression in support of social movements. One of the classical literary figures of Iran who was of interest in the party's publications was Hakim Abul-Qasim Ferdowsi. By examining the party's publications during the years 1941-1953, it becomes clear that Ferdowsi's image in these publications was presented in three different ways with three different goals: 1- In some articles, his name and works were interpreted differently (not necessarily incorrectly), in line with party ideas; for example, in the Bidari-ye Ma journal (the women's organ of the party), which, in addition to following all the party's publication instructions, emphasizes the role of women and presents all its ideas with a focus on women, a series of articles summarized the lives of female characters in the Shahnameh: “Rudabeh”, “Gordafarid”, “The Sacrifice of Shahnameh's Mothers”, and “Manijeh” were published, and the type of view on the story and its narrative in these articles was completely in line with the policies of this publication. Or in a long article in the Monthly Mardom journal, descriptions of the Shahnameh stories were presented in line with party ideas, and the writers used them to incite the audience against oppression. 2- In some other publications, Ferdowsi's position among the people of the Soviet Union was addressed, and Ferdowsi's high position in world literature was reflected as an example of solidarity between Iranians and the people of the Soviet Union; for example, the Payam-e No journal, by publishing articles by non-Persian speakers about Ferdowsi, tried to convey this point. 3- Finally, some articles scientifically examined Ferdowsi's works, and the writers of the publications tried to attract serious and educated audiences to their publications by publishing scientific and specialized articles about Ferdowsi; for example, in the Payam-e No journal, a detailed article addressed the incorrect and undocumented legends about Ferdowsi's life that were common among people.

This article aims to examine Ferdowsi and his valuable work Shahnameh from the perspective of the Tudeh Party’s publications through a descriptive-analytical method by reviewing the publications Nameh-ye Rahbar, Nameh-ye Mardom, Sogand, Payam-e No, Bidari-ye Ma, and Maslahat. Since in the Tudeh Party’s publications, literature has always been important and considered for attracting various segments of society, promoting party ideas and goals, and ultimately softening the dry atmosphere of political news and ideological articles, the leaders of the Tudeh Party of Iran, following the instructions of the Soviet Communist Party, sought to spread the features approved by the Communist Party among contemporary Iranian literary works. Given the strong propaganda tools and newspapers and publications at their disposal, they were largely successful at times and managed to align many poets and writers with themselves. They used various methods to exploit the potential of leading Iranian writers and poets in alignment with themselves and to express and implement their cultural and literary views. On the other hand, not all poets and writers who were of interest to the Tudeh Party and whose works were published in their publications were contemporary writers; sometimes works of classical literary figures were also published, and it seems that only aspects of these figures’ works that aligned with the thoughts of the publication’s writers and the party’s ideological line were considered. It can be said that the Tudeh Party’s publications’ interpretation of publishing such works was in line with their combat goals and to highlight the themes of anti-oppression in support of social movements. One of the classical literary figures of Iran who was of interest in the party's publications was Hakim Abul-Qasim Ferdowsi. By examining the party's publications during the years 1941-1953, it becomes evident that Ferdowsi's image in these publications was presented in three different ways with three different goals: 1- In some articles, his name and works were interpreted differently (not necessarily incorrectly), in line with party ideas; for example, in the Bidari-ye Ma journal (the women's organ of the party), which, in addition to following all the party's publication instructions, emphasizes the role of women and presents all its ideas with a focus on women, a series of articles summarized the lives of female characters in the Shahnameh: “Rudabeh”, “Gordafarid”, “The Sacrifice of Shahnameh's Mothers”, and “Manijeh” were published, and the type of view on the story and its narrative in these articles was completely in line with the policies of this publication. Or in a long article in the Monthly Mardom journal, descriptions of the Shahnameh stories were presented in line with party ideas, and the writers used them to incite the audience against oppression. 2- In some other publications, Ferdowsi's position among the people of the Soviet Union was addressed, and Ferdowsi's high position in world literature was reflected as an example of solidarity between Iranians and the people of the Soviet Union; for example, the Payam-e No journal, by publishing articles by non-Persian speakers about Ferdowsi, tried to convey this point. 3- Finally, some articles scientifically examined Ferdowsi's works, and the writers of the publications tried to attract serious and educated audiences to their publications by publishing scientific and specialized articles about Ferdowsi; for example, in the Payam-e No journal, a detailed article addressed the incorrect and undocumented legends about Ferdowsi's life that are common among people.

Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, from its composition in the fourth century AH to our days, has always been at the center of attention for various intellectual and political trends. Throughout history, each intellectual and political current, according to its own inclinations, interests, and specific purposes, has utilized the mythical elements and narratives of the Shahnameh to prove its claims, instill ideas, and expand its teachings. In the present article, after referring to the moral and mystical readings of the Shahnameh by moral educators and advocates of mysticism and Sufism in the pre-modern era, we answer the question of how the reading of the Shahnameh has undergone transformation since the dawn of the modernization movement and with what motives and arrangements the poets of the Constitutional era have employed the mythical and historical narratives, elements, and characters of the Shahnameh in the service of their own doctrinal and discursive purposes. The influence of Shahnameh in Iranian culture has been so deep and extensive that poets of various eras have each used its narratives in their works to promote their own specific ideas and discourse. Consequently, the transformation of discourses has provided the basis for different readings of the narratives and mythical elements of the Shahnameh. These discourses and, subsequently, the readings of the Shahnameh can be divided into pre-modern and post-modern discourses and readings. Here, while mentioning two prevalent discourses in the pre-modern era, we will examine the most common post-modern discourse and reading.

Moral Interpretation:

Ethical teachings, concepts, and actions have always been of such importance that even eulogizing and lyrical poets have not avoided referencing and emphasizing certain concepts, virtues, or moral actions within their praises and lyrical poems. Many of these poets have resorted to the stories and mythical elements of the Shahnameh to present, explain, or instill moral concepts. In this type of usage, the mythical elements are detached from their epic context and used to convey and instill moral teachings. It seems that the use of mythical elements to promote moral concepts has been somewhat common since the time of the creation of the Shahnameh. Ferdowsi can perhaps be considered one of the first poets who repeatedly used the mythical elements within the Shahnameh to instill moral concepts and actions (Ferdowsi, 2007: 1/85).
Mystical and Sufi Interpretation: Alongside the moral reading of the Shahnameh, from the sixth century AH onward, with the spread of mystical thoughts, another interpretation also emerged that offered a different reading of the Shahnameh. The allegorical perspective of the proponents of this interpretation allowed them to use any phenomenon or concept within their own discursive framework. The use of mythical narratives and elements to convey discursive meanings and concepts is one of the expressive techniques that has been reflected in some mystical poems.
Moral and mystical interpretations of the Shahnameh lasted until the dawn of intellectual and literary modernization, after which they gave way to a different reading that can be termed a political-nationalistic interpretation. The present article is tasked with examining and analyzing this reading of the Shahnameh.
Political-Nationalistic Interpretation of the Shahnameh: From the second half of the 13th century AH, simultaneously with the entry of progressive thought into Iran and the gradual formation of the intellectual foundations of Constitutionalism, the idea of nationalism in Iran emerged and strengthened over time, becoming the dominant discourse of the era. The prevalence of this discourse, upon which the Constitutional Movement was theoretically based, significantly marginalized pre-modern discourses, including moral and mystical discourses, and influenced the literature of the era as an alternative discourse. During this period, the ancient and mythical eras of Iran once again gained special reverence and attention, and the Shahnameh and its narratives became the focal point for the poets of the time.
In this reading, the mythical era also underwent changes and took on the colors of the desires and imaginations of the reading era. Here, we first discuss the idealized image of Iran during the mythical era in the perception of Constitutional era poets, and then examine their different approach to the elements and events of the mythical era and how they directed them to expand the ideals of the Constitutional movement.
A: The Idealized Image of Mythical and Ancient Iran versus Constitutional Era Iran: The era of mythical and ancient kings is depicted with an idealized image in Constitutional era poetry. This image was depicted by Iranian nationalist theorists such as Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzâde (d. 1916) and Mirza Agha Khan Kermâni (d. 1935) (Sadriniyâ, 2022: 48-50). In their perception, the era of mythical kings was a time of prosperity, joy, happiness, and the flourishing of Iran and its people. Kings ruled during that heavenly period, and everyone lived in comfort and ease (cf. Akhundzâde, 1375: 225; Mirza Agha Khan, 2000: 120-126).
This perception of the contrast between mythical and ancient Iran and late Qajar era Iran has been widely reflected in the poetry of almost all Constitutional era poets. For example, in the poetry of Adib al-Mamâlek Farâhâni (d. 1913), we repeatedly encounter such an approach to the mythical era of Iran (Adib, 1933: 88, 99). Malek al-Shoʾarâ Bahâr (d. 1951) also, on various occasions, referred to Iran as the land of Kayân and the country of Darius in his poetry, which is now under threat from Russia and Britain (Bahâr, 2001: 271-272). Such an approach and interpretation are clearly seen in the poetry of other poets such as Sayyed Ashraf al-Din (Namini, 1992: 332-333), Âref Qazvini (1977: 335-336), and Farrokhi Yazdi (1990: 186-187), despite some differences in their nationalist perceptions.
B: Mythical Elements in Service of Explaining the Necessity of Struggle Against Despotism and Colonialism: Constitutional era poets, according to the stages and requirements of the people's freedom-seeking movement, used mythical elements and characters to explain the necessity of political struggle against the enemies of Iran. At each stage, they employed specific mythical elements according to the nature and goals of their struggle. When aiming to incite people against domestic despotism, they used the story of Kâve and Zahhâk, and when the issue was the aggression of a foreign colonial enemy, they resorted to the story of Salm, Tur, and Iraj, and spoke of the necessity of Manuchehr's action (e.g., Farrokhi Yazdi, 1990: 102, 121, 132, 160). Âref Qazvini, while honoring the kings of the mythical era, viewed Kâve's uprising against Zahhâk from a different perspective. According to his view, based on a modern perception of the foundations of government legitimacy, the Iranian nation has always been the owner of this land, and it was the people who once entrusted its governance to Fereydun, Qobâd, and Jamšid or reclaimed it from Zahhâk through their uprising led by Kâve (Âref Qazvini, 282-283).
The image of Russia and Britain in the mirror of Constitutional era poetry, considering their actions and policies, shows a striking resemblance to the image of Tur and Salm in the mythical era of Iran. Russia is depicted as the embodiment of unrestrained and blatant rage, devoid of compassion, inflamed, and ruthless, whereas Britain is the symbol of cunning and deceit coupled with intelligence and self-restraint. Based on this mental image, in popular perception, Russia is likened to a wild bear and Britain to a sly fox. Farrokhi Yazdi is one of the poets who, in his poetry, has given a mythical dimension to the aggression of these two imperialist enemies against Iran, using these characteristics (Farrokhi Yazdi, 1990: 186), portraying Russia as the continuation of Tur and Britain as the representation of Salm in his era (see Sadriniyâ, 2022: 170-186). Such an image of the aggression of the two hostile neighbors has also been reflected in the poetry of other poets of this era (Bahâr, 2001: 1/272, 642).
C: Theme Creation with Mythical Elements: Sometimes, mythical elements in the poetry of the Constitutional era are used solely for the purpose of theme creation and as an expressive tool to describe nature and lyricism. Although using these elements in this context mixes the poet's words with a kind of artificiality and playfulness, reducing its emotional weight, it still, in a way, displays the poet's patriotic attachment. Bahâr (2001: 1/171) and Farrokhi Yazdi (1990: 193-194) are among the poets who used mythical elements in constructing their poetic imagery, creating combinations such as “Afrasiâb of Autumn”, “Kayumars of Spring”, “Garshâsp of Boxwood”, “Giv of Wind”, and “Pirân of Autumn”, among others.

From examining the use of the narratives and mythical elements of the Shahnameh in Persian poetry, the following points can be inferred: The use of these elements and narratives in various texts has been accompanied by a sense of reverence and respect. Followers of different trends throughout history have utilized these narratives and elements according to their intellectual atmosphere and discursive needs to explain viewpoints, convey ideas and beliefs, and reinforce and establish their discursive purposes. In the three major discourses of Iranian intellectual and cultural history, the narratives and mythical elements of the Shahnameh have been used to convey the concepts and purposes of moral, mystical, and political-nationalistic discourses. Poets of the Constitutional era, according to the political situation of their time and the necessity to incite people against internal despotism and foreign influence, have presented various readings of the mythical elements of the Shahnameh. The attachment to the narratives of the mythical era has led some poets to use mythical elements in constructing their poetic imagery, creating unique combinations and similes to give distinction to their words.

The narratives of Tus, the hero and the prince of Nozar, have undergone many changes from the Avestan era to the period of compiling historical and national epic texts of Iran. Tus, who is introduced in the Avesta as a renowned hero and warrior, is a prince in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh who is far from the kingship and is famous for his folly and frivolity. This duality of personality may stem from the differences that are seen in the narratives of the Nozar family. Ferdowsi’s description of the Nozarian narratives differs greatly from the texts before and after the Shahnameh. The various actions of the mythical-epic characters in the realm of changes resulting from the course of myth, the process of epic evolution and also the difference of narratives are worth examining. In this research, by examining the narratives related to Tus (from the Avesta to the historical texts), a clearer picture of him is presented and the changes in Tus’s work and behavior in the transition from myth to epic and the reasons for this transformation are discussed.Keywords: Tus, Nozarians, narratology, myth, epic, Shahnameh, historical texts.