صورت

Rhetorical figures are the artistic use of language that, through the selection of specific linguistic and grammatical structures, assist poets in expressing their ideas and thoughts. These figures are highly structure-oriented and are lost in translation to another language. The loss of literary devices in the translation of poetic texts becomes even more perplexing because, in poetry, not only the meaning but also the form is important. And, since what is lost most in the translation of poetic language is the form, it is clear that poetic devices are also lost to a great extent. However, there are translators who are fully aware of the style, context, and form of both source and target languages and skillfully recreate these specific forms in the target language. Among English poets, Shakespeare has ingeniously and efficiently used literary devices in his theatrical and poetic works. Among Shakespeare's non-theatrical works, the two poems Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece, which have recently been translated into Persian, have significantly utilized literary devices. A general evaluation of the Persian translation of these selected devices in these two poems, based on functional equivalence, shows that the Persian translator has made great effort to translate these devices into Persian in an efficient manner and within the framework of a functional equivalence. This article aims to examine and evaluate a selected number of these devices in the Persian translation of the two poems within the framework of functional equivalence.

Educational literature is one of the most important types of literature in the literature of different nations, especially in Iran. The master teacher of education and training in Persian literature is Saadi, whose value is not hidden from anyone; Therefore, this research aims to analyze the story of "Saadi's dispute with the moddai" based on the formal and content indicators of educational literature by using the library study method and in an analytical-descriptive way.The results of the studies show that features such as parables, high frequency of interrogative sentences, high frequency of imperative and prohibitive sentences, syntactic avoidance and shifting of sentence elements, dramatization of the topic, argumentation and interpretation of speech, words, combinations and interpretations of educational literature, simple and expressive image , the use of literary works of art in the direction of education, emphasis on the role of simile, simplicity and expressiveness of language and expression, audience and reader-centeredness, and being explicit are the most important formal characteristics and referring to Quranic verses, hadiths and traditions, predestination perspective, Rationalism and wisdom, monotonous approach (masculine approach), mention of moral teachings in the form of advice and admonition, being instructive and edifying, realism and avoiding fantasy are among the content features of Saadi's story. As a result of Anke's words, the story "Saadi's fight with the moddai" is one of the best educational stories in the field of educational literature

When the elements and components of a literary work are examined and how they are related to each other and their relation to the general structure of the work is retrieved, a basic (formalist) form reading is performed. It is with such a reading that we can talk about the degree of bonding of the components of the work (horizontal and vertical bonds). In this article, the form and structure of a lyric by Rumi has been read with the following information (with the help of in-text symbols): A word that rises from the soul of the soul to veil the gem and the lips of the sea, the tongue of the veil

It is a descriptive-analytical research method that examines Ghazal No. 921 from Shams Tabrizi's KOliat, edited by Badi ol-Zaman Farozanfar.

The feature of this sonnet in all verses is that the face is a veil and at the same time a means of expressing meaning. The world of existence is the world of forms and meanings, and forms are veils of meanings, and at the same time meaning manifests itself in the face. To reach the meaning, you have to go beyond the surface. Of course, the absolute meaning cannot be understood and there is always one curtain behind another curtain, and it is only in death and silence that we understand the meaning. The theme of the contrast between form and meaning and the contrast between pairs of their synonymous words can be seen in all the verses of Ghazal.

The link that can be seen between the verses of this ghazal has created an organ-like structure and the overall structure of this ghazal evokes one of the key oppositions of form and meaning in Rumi's thought, "wave and sea". For Rumi, the content is the tool for the evolution of the form, and the form is the material for the emergence of the truth of meaning. Rumi's poetry boils from inside him and finds its shape and form according to the type of boiling. However, due to the reliance on form, the new critique cannot be a suitable critique for mystics who are free from form.

The purpose of this paper is an introduction of a new approach into morphology as “construction and interpretation”. To achieve this goal, some parts of Role and Reference Theory has been extended to inflectional morphology; it has integrated with a new approach and constructed new perspective as “construction and interpretation”. This new approach has been provided to analyze how conceptualization in language is and how the function of correlate between polysemy and synonymy is and what causes this correlation. It has been performed in three steps: in the first step, different morphological approaches about polysemy have been reviewed, in the second step, the proposed approach has been presented and in the third step, problematic samples of previous approaches within the proposed approach have been analyzed. The results suggest that usage is different with meaning and it is the basis of language and axis of conceptualization. Usage simultaneously and continuously is in interaction with both meaning and form. This simultaneous and permanent interaction causes correlative and competitive formation of polysemy and synonymy. Pragmatic competence is in the mind of the speaker, so the speaker refers by creating interaction among usage, meaning and form inside cultural cognition and context, and the listener interprets and infers the reference unit or “construction”, in this way, conceptualization of form takes place.

The issue of existence and proof of coherence in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh is the main issue of this research. In fact, Ferdowsi's use of authentic modes of expression, which is consistent with his epic genre and theme, is to such an extent that it disrupts the dualism of structuralist myth-poetry. This is one of the unifying theories of the philosophy of modern art, namely: the philosophy of art by Croce, in fundamental elements such as: "intuition-expression", "art identity". - Language, "the inseparability of pure and fine expression" or the principle of "genuine way of expression", as well as in his definition of "art" as "the manifestation of matter in the form" are also well represented. Therefore, based on the most important elements mentioned in the philosophy of art of Croce, the present study comparatively analyzes the artistic unity in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh by concluding with an analytical-descriptive approach and concludes that: Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, in addition to its various forms of textual and structural cohesion, also enjoys artistic and aesthetic cohesion, which, in comparison with other epic poems before and after it, has the greatest degree of compatibility of affect and meaning. (Subject) with its construction and face. This adaptation or appropriateness in the Shahnameh has been clearly exaggerated in the literary ways of exaggeration, contradiction, and metaphor.

Although the literature of the Constitutionalist Period has refurbished the content, form, and template of Persian poetry, it is indebted to its past. Since the revolutionary and zealous nature of the poetry of this period has, above all, necessitated the augmentation of collective and national convergence and stimulation of Iranians' sense of patriotism and alienation, the epic qualities - both in form and in content - and the motivational capacities of Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, are one of the best grounds to accomplish these ideal objectives.Utilizing a descriptive-analytical method and the theory of intertextuality, the present study aims to scrutinize the impression of two great poets in the Constitution Period i.e. Adib-al-Mamalik Farahani and Farrokhi Yazdi from Ferdowsi's Shahnameh. It also analyzes the existing relationships between their poems in various content components (using Shahnametic symbols, parallelizing, and historical simulations), and form (language, rhetorical images, and musical components). In accordance with the results of the study, this effect was not a mere imitation, and these two poets have established newfangled patterns, particularly in terms of the transformation of characters, parallelism, and historical simulation. Furthermore, since these two poets have been under the influence of Shahnameh's content and form, the intertextual relationship of their poems with Shahnameh is of a strong intertextuality.

Among non-indicative verbal forms, subjunctive is of most uses. This form not only plays the most important functions in expressing modal concepts, but also has a close relationship with 'aspect'. In this paper, the ways in which subjunctive concepts are expressed different uses of subjunctive forms are studeid. Based on the findings of the research, there are at least six ways in which modal concepts are expressed in Persian all of which carry subjunctive forms. Subjunctive forms play at least fifteen different functions which are divided into two categories, namely, prototypical vs non-prototypical. All these functions share one feature: there is no guarantee for the actualization of the event or situation in question. As far as meaning is concerned all subjunctive forms function within a single network in center of which there exists a prototypical meaning. All other non-prototypical meanings are derived from this prototypical meaning.

The expressions that a poet has stated about the poetry of himself can be one of the best ways to grasp his poetry and to distinguish its stylistic features from other poets. This sort of treatment, which is a mode of criticism, was common among classical poets, particularly when they have mentioned the prominences of their own poetry. Nali, like other great poets, has stated the quality of his own poetry in several verses and has attributed some features to it. His statements are illuminating in providing a better understanding of his poetry. The qualities that he has maintained contain both formal and contextual aspects. The most significant features he has expressed for the form of his poetry consist of “euphony,” “laconism” and “dressing up the meaning.” Nali, for contextual aspect of his poems, pointed to the sublime meanings and wisdoms. The results illustrates that Nali argues the necessity of both form and content for a good poem. In this regard, he has praised his own poetry and declared it as an instance for evolution of form and content.

‎“Distinction” is one of the main components for the success and ‎continuity of any literary work. “Literary distinction” has not been ‎studied directly and concentrated in Islamic rhetoric; but this topic was ‎always in the focus of Islamic critics and rhetoricians. The major problem ‎in this research is receiving the attitude of Muslim literature scholars ‎towards the topic of “literary distinction”. By relying on the original ‎references in literary criticism and Islamic rhetoric, this article intends to ‎find out the essence of this discussion from the standpoint of different ‎opinions of Muslim literature scholars. While the literary distinction is the ‎result of convergence function of “form and specific meaning” in the ‎Islamic rhetoric, the fundamental topics including specific meanings and ‎forms, discretion-creating domination, mutual meanings and forms, plus ‎their types and subtypes have been investigated.‎This essay tried to make up the effectiveness of Islamic literary criticism ‎in this field in order to criticize the classic literary works based on such a ‎standpoint that the creators of these words believed in

One of nowadays Persian literature requirement is criticizing and studying classic Persian literature because such studies cause to recognition proper (good) from improper (bad) and valid evaluation of old Persian literature sources. It is for centuries that hadigna -alhagigha has been know as one omhat - al - salasa (three mothers) of (religious) mystical Masnavi Persian literature while there are no studies that prove its mystic origin, just because SANAIE has been know as a theosophist, hadigha considered as mystical work. Aim of this study is criticizing and studying hadigna-al - hagigha without regarding its writer and is based on pure analysis of the work and for this mantegh - al- tair was chosen as an comparative pattern and both Masnavies considered (analyzed) in form andcontext. In form analysis section, rhythms and tones (written style) and format (shape) and in context meaning analysis, context and meaning coherence has been considered and compared.

Experience has shown that ignoring the syllabus and its design would mean a lack of serious attention to the content، learning and behavioral objectives، and the teaching and evaluation method of the language acquisition program. This article aims to remind the Persian experts of the importance of syllabus/ curriculum in the perspective of Teaching Persian to Non-Iranians. One of the most important characteristics for a textbook suitable for language teaching is to have a linguistic theory and a learning theory، and to pay attention to language learner differences، and their goals and needs. The question in this article is «how closely the process of developing Persian language textbooks follows the methodology of syllabus design»? For this purpose، the first section، theoretical foundations، displays the difference between teaching methodology and syllabus design، and describes syllabuses based on linguistic theories. Then، the evolutional route of the syllabuses is explained، and their dominant tendencies are determined. Finally، the method of representation of this evolutional route in the textbooks for teaching Persian to Non-Iranians is discussed. In the final section of the article، while itemizing the effective factors in designing proper syllabuses، some practical suggestions are made for organizing the process of developing teaching Persian to non-Iranians resources.

Norm-breaking in the field of literature, like other areas of human knowledge, is the province of the talented. Norm-breakings Hafiz undertook in his ghazals came to be the source of a movement with a good many imitators. His norm-breakings took place in form, meaning and/or in the possible relationships between the two. Critiquing the social mores was one of his trademark iconoclastic practices in the realm of content. Another norm-breaking was inventing rhetorical subtleties whose novelty was particularly conspicuous in the realm of pun. It was an innovation in creating varied links of signs on the horizontal axis of poetry—an innovation resulted from Hafez’s contemplations on the emotional meanings of words conjured up in various cultural aspects. The harmony of meaning background and emotional background with the general music dominating them—a linkage created by meter, rhyme and juxtaposition of words—is another feature in Hafez’s poetry. The impressing value and emotional intimacy of these elements are palpable in his poetry. The most remarkable norm-breaking in Hafez’s ghazals may be the way in which the scattered meanings clandestinely interact through a ghazal; this has caused most scholars to regard it as polysemous and lacking in terms of logical relationship among couplets. These couplets, albeit distantly related with each other, are connected deep inside. Besides demonstrating Hafez’s rhetorical, artistic as well as semantic norms-breakings, the present paper shows that in spite of his poetry seeming scattered, which is a result of distant and far-reached associations in Hafez’s culturally and experientially loaded mind, there is an inner relationship among them that can be understood by transforming the norm-breaking propositions to norm-enforcing ones. A ghazal by Saadi is juxtaposed to one by Hafez to illustrate the issue at hand.

Motivation means the existence of a code in from to get meaning. It directly leads us from the form to the meaning. It means that the relation of form and meaning is not always conventional and sometimes, this relation may be an iconic one. One type of motivation is motivation in compound words. A clear motivated compound word is a word that is possible to get the meaning of the whole word through meaning of its components. Some scholars believe that primary words of the human being were motivated, and over the period of time, the lexical motivation has been reduced due to phonetic changes and other variation. This study has a deeper and more detailed look at the phenomena. In order to investigate this hypothesis, 2800 content words from four texts with an outline of a journey from the present time have been extracted and motivation in compound words has been considered. Next, the results of these texts have been compared with the results of 2800 words of texts from 200 years ago in order to answer this question that since 200 years ago, Persian language words have been more transparent or vice versa. Comparison of the results of two time courses showed a meaningful increase in the number of semi motivated compound words in the present time in comparison with 200 years ago. But there is no significant increase in the number of motivated, non-motivated compound words and totally compound words. Therefore, it may be claimed that in the last 200 years, semi motivated compound words have become more motivated and more transparent

phonetic motivation is what we can guess the meaning via sound. Some people believe that primary words were more iconic and by passage of time, because of phonetic changes and … the motivation has been reduced. In this research, for studying this thesis, four passages with outline of a journey from present time have been considered and 2800 content words from it have been extracted. Then phonetic motivation in these words has been considered. Afterwards, the results of these passages have been compared with results from considering 2800words of passages from200years before in order to answer this question that from past 200years, Persian language has been more motivated or vice versa. Comparison of the results of two time courses didn’t show a meaningful change in the number of words with phonetic motivation and semi phonetic motivation in the present time in comparison with 200 years before. Therefore, it may be claimed that since 200 years before until now, no change has happened in the phonetic motivation of Persian words.

Although linguistic signs such as "hmm", "bale", "jeddan", "mm", occur frequently in conversation, they have not been studied linguistically up to now. These sounds, named back channel responses, influence the ongoing conversations. Back channel is a verbal or non-verbal response provided by the listener to show his/her participation, and though it seems to be insignificant communicatively, misunderstandings arise if they are misused. Therefore, their overlooking in conversation analysis has dramatic effects on the results obtained. This research studies back channel responses with respect to their form, function, degree of influence and prosodic features.

Penetration of culture and literature of orient began at the time of crusades and so the German authors of romanticism became founded in oriental inspiration for literary works. Orient was for Goethe until 1814، when he recived the translation of Divan Hafiz، translated by Hammer- Purgstall، a medium for the release of the time. But after reading this translation he became so enthusiastic that hecomposed poems about Hafiz. Rueckert translations ofculture and literature of orient occurred after Goetheand introduced to the west the culture and literature of orient and enriched the geraman language which is a very good language for expression of thoughts of people in the world.

Human beings have always been trying to draw a pleasing picture of themselves to others. Others’ judgments and ideas are important for the individuals. There are many opportunities in life that people encounter problems in their interactions and relations because of not applying the art of understanding management. From Sa’di’s point of
view conscience is of more importance and believes that individuals must consider their conscience and should not adorn their appearance for others. The main goal of the present article is to survey the Western thinkers and Sa’di’s point of view in this regard.