محمود درویش

"Pragmatics" denotes the manner in which a speaker communicates a message to a recipient within a particular situation. Consequently, meaning circulates across three entities in an ongoing process. This field gave rise to various branches, with speech act theory being one of the most prominent. This notion posits that discourse is synonymous with action. The listener transcends the literal dictionary definition and seeks to ascertain the intended meaning by evaluating the context and circumstances that generated the text. An instructive statement can serve as an instruction, warning, or threat, depending on the context, and vice versa. John Austin is acknowledged as the originator and inventor of this idea, having presented it during his lectures at Oxford and Harvard Universities. Subsequently, John Searle, an American philosopher, elucidated and augmented the theory by incorporating classifications and stipulations. This research is significant for its analysis of a poem that inspires the spirit of fight and sacrifice in free persons, evoking strength and resistance against adversaries. It also reveals normalizers as traitors who exploit their populace for personal advantage. The poem encompasses multiple speech actions, rendering it appropriate for examination using speech act theory. This research poses the subsequent critical inquiries: 1. Which categories of speech acts are identified in Mahmoud Darwish's poem "The Mask Has Fallen" based on John Searle's classifications? 2. In what manner does the poet utilize these actions to express meanings that transcend their literal interpretations? 3. What illocutionary functions does the poem fulfill? Prior to addressing these inquiries in the findings section, it is essential to classify speech acts into five categories: 1. Assertive Speech Acts - Convey the speaker's conviction regarding the veracity of an occurrence, with the objective of aligning beliefs with reality. Examples encompass articulating facts, recognizing, inferring, asserting, hypothesizing, and forecasting. 2. Directive Speech Acts - Employed to affect the audience's behavior, instilling a sense of duty. These encompass pleas, instructions, counsel, cautions, motivation, and recommendations. 3. Expressive Speech Acts - Communicate the speaker's emotions and mental states regarding particular situations or events. Examples encompass accolades, congratulations, gratitude, apologies, commendations, derision, condemnation, and remorse. 4. Commissive Speech Acts - Articulate the speaker's commitment to a forthcoming action, signifying intention and purpose. Instances encompass assurances, menaces, denials, and obligations. 5. Declarative Speech Acts - In contrast to the preceding categories, declarative acts effectuate tangible changes in the listener and the external environment. The efficacy of these actions is contingent upon the speaker's power. Instances encompass proclamations, denunciations, and classifications. This taxonomy underscores the importance of many categories of speech acts in comprehending communication.

This research employs a descriptive-analytical methodology grounded in John Searle’s theoretical framework. This study examines the varieties and efficacy of speech acts in Mahmoud Darwish’s poem "The Mask Has Fallen." The poet condemns the betrayal of normalizers who undermine the Palestinian cause and implores freedom fighters to persist in their struggle, despite the lack of assistance from Arab or Islamic nations.

Darwish employs symbolic language, exemplified by references to Rome, to signify Western historical hegemony and colonial exploitation. He anthropomorphizes inanimate objects, as demonstrated by his reference to "Beirut," to underscore his genuine affection for his nation, free from egocentric reasons or shallow sentiments. Speech Act Distribution: 80% of the employed speech acts are indirect, imparting greater significance to the poetry. Twenty percent constitute direct verbal acts employed for emphasis. The poet continuously eschews straightforward declarations, asserting that the journey of conflict is widely recognized-contrary to the normalizers, who profit from Western and Zionist agendas.

An analytical examination of speech acts in "The Mask Has Fallen" reveals: Directive Acts (4 instances) - The predominant kind employed, indicating that the poet's primary objective is to incite action rather than merely disseminate information. Expressive Acts (3 instances) - The second most prevalent, as the poet consistently articulates emotions and sentiments, hence enhancing the clarity and impact of the message. The poet utilizes speaking acts for diverse pragmatic objectives, including cautioning the recipient regarding the hypocrisy of their surroundings. Promoting sustained defiance. Articulating his internal struggle, as he feels divided between those who resist and those who escape. Exhibiting his attention and dedication to safeguarding his territory from adversarial forces. Furthermore, Darwish employs literary intertextuality and Quranic allusions to elevate morale and highlight the dichotomy between veracity and falsehood in conflict. He underscores the vulnerability and instability of the adversarial state, designating it as "the foundling"-an illegitimate entity reliant on Western assistance for its existence.

Mahmoud Darwish is one of the contemporary poets of Arabic literature whose poems reflect the hopes and pains of the land of Palestine. "Woman" and "homeland" are among the most frequent concepts that have played a role in his poems. This essay has tried to investigate the duality "woman/homeland" based on the emotional system of discourse in a descriptive-analytical approach in some of his poems. Emotional system of discourse is one of the types of discourse in signsemantics that focuses on the relationship between the set of surficial signs (signifiers) and content (signifieds) because it is in the context of the very sign and signified relations that the perceptive presence of the statives takes place and the creation of themes becomes possible. The present research aims to answer this question: How can the creation and overflow of themes be interpreted and explained based on the emotional system of discourse in the poems by Mahmoud Darwish where "woman/homeland" is the main focus of the theme? In other words, how can the creation of themes in the poet's works of this sort be explained and described based on the emotional system of discourse? The ultimate results of the discussion indicate that the emotional system of the discourse in these poems is based on perceptual, corporal, and intensive mechanism which mainly the poet uses the two concepts of "woman" and "homeland" as an artistic tool to convey the suffering and sorrow among Palestinian people through which he would Stimulate the sympathy of the audience about these tragic images i.e. through transcending the concept of woman to the concept of homeland, he seeks to negate this duality in better words.

The Islamic Republic of Iran and Palestine have resisted internal and external oppression and arrogance throughout their history full of jihad and struggle. Intellectuals of these two societies demonstrated their protest against the current political conditions at the time, coinciding with the outbreak of the two world wars, and portrayed the political conditions, poverty, deprivation, the thugs of darkness, and other topics by singing poetry. The literature of resistance had an important role in this field. In order for the poet to portray the painful and distressing conditions of society in the literature of resistance, he tends to a special subject field and aims to stir up the spirit of struggle and resistance among people. Mahmoud Darwish and Tahereh Sfarzadeh sang wonderful verses on resistance, which led to the emergence of poetic commonalities in their poems. The research deals with the emergence of resistance in its various forms, as the two poets chanted, relying on the comparative approach. The result indicates that the chants of the two poets were the scene of the emergence of common contents such as the call for peace, identity, patriotic fervor, martyrdom, and other religious and patriotic contents that make the poets enthusiastic about it.

The Holy Quran has created the biggest revolution and the deepest evolution in human society by an invitation to destroy all types of somatic and mental restrictions from body and mind of human. Its verses and stories are full of lessons in order to warn the unrighteous and the grabbers and invite the oppressed to stability and justice. Specially, its ahsanolghesas which pictures the poor access from the trough wells to the pick ambitions and from the humiliation of slavery to the gratification and honor in the divine trials by a special delicacy and the plot of “ my God is astute in what he wills”. The Arab poets, specially the Palestinian poets have called the unconscious of the audiences of their poems to the new implications of this religious heritage by inspiring from different aspects of Joseph story and adjusting its dimensions to the poetic experience and the truth of their time and they have risen to counter with land blockade and expropriation of culture by grabbing the religious heritage as a non-confiscation and non-blockade common human legacy.The current study has expressed the reflection of different dimensions of Joseph story in the poem of two prominent poet of the Palestinian resistance, Mahmood Darvish and Samih al-Qasim by analytical method and it has come to the conclusion that these two poets have made this story as an eruptive source for expressing the literary themes of sustainability by targeted calls of the story and they have made its characters as a symbol for the Palestinian state, the treason of some Arabic countries and their personal suffering.

According to Jung, the Swiss psychologist, human subconscious has a collective aspect that is filled with inherited archetypes from its ancestors. As the matter of fact, this legacy can affect human thoughts and feelings. One of those archetypes is called anima, which refers to the character of a woman hidden in every man. Considering those work that come from masculine feelings, especially those that have a romantic theme, it is better to see the traces of anima. This is due to the fact that the woman inside the man has the opportunity to reach the stage of emergence and manifestation in such work. This research, implementing an analytical-comparative method and a comparative approach of the American school of thought, considers the similarity of literary work and ,as the result of the commonalities of all human beings, carefully examines this archetype in the love poems of two contemporary poets; Mahmoud Darvish and Fereydoon Moshiri. The results of this research show that anima can be used as a common basis in comparing the poems of two poets; Because although they are from two different cultures and races; But together, they have used many positive and negative anime functions and projections. When they feel sad, afraid, empty and dead, they are in control of negative anime and when the wife of the heart and the lady of the dreams call all their goodness and beauty and wish to join her, they are dominated by their positive anime.

Music plays a prominent role in contemporary poetry's structure and arouses the emotions of the audience while enhancing the beauty of the verses. The undeniable connection between poetry and music is evident because the beauty and longevity of any poem depend on its utilization of music. With that in mind, Mahmoud Darvish and Qahar Aasi are among the poets who have shown special attention to this aesthetic element. In Darvish’s poems, there is an epic spirit, which characterizes as a guard/ weapon to protect the land of Palestine. Similarly, Aasi's recent poem, "From the Fire and the Silk", shows his patriotic spirit. Both of these poets have tried to integrate music in their poems to deliver the message to their audience in a more beautiful and attractive way. The current research examines the element of music in Mahmoud Darvish's poetry collection, "Almond Blossoms and Beyond", and Qahar Aasi’s collection "From the Fire and the Silk". Using a descriptive-analytical approach and precise statistical analysis of selected poems from both poets, the investigations indicate that they share common themes in their poetry, but the authors seek to illuminate the method of employing music in the poetry of these two poets and the harmony between music and its content. The results demonstrate differences in the utilization of music and its relationship with the content and subject matter of the poetry by the two poets. However, the connection between music, content, emotions, and thoughts is a matter that can always be observed in their poetry.

Social poetry mostly deals with expressing the problems, needs, and daily life issues of the society. This kind of poetry is a result of the direct connection between the poet and the society; the poet tries to reflect the objective events and realities of their own society through it. Contemporary Arabic and Persian poetry, alongside other topics, mostly addresses the pains and sufferings of the people. Mahmoud Darwish and Qahar Asi, like other contemporary poets, have been influenced by the political and social circumstances of their time. The tyranny of the rulers in these two countries has obliged these poets to fulfill their social mission effectively. Although social poetry is a subset of poetry of sustainability, as it has assigned a significant portion of their poems to itself. It has been subject to independent research, analysis, and scrutiny to reveal the perspectives and views of these two poets. The findings show that the most important social themes in the poems of these two poets consist of: sympathy with people, the pain and suffering of war refugees, exile, hope for the future, and the promise of peace. Furthermore, the political events in their homeland and the difference in the environment have resulted in a difference in their perspectives.

 It is a pure descriptive study in which the documentation tool has been used to collect the data. The content was organized using a descriptive-analytic method based on the American school framework for comparative studies. The researchers also apply a quantitative research approach to explain and evaluate synaesthesia in the abovementioned works.

Critics consider poetry to have various functions, ranging from providing pleasure to describing and explaining phenomena in the world of existence, cultivating and refining ethics, and promoting values. Of course, it should not be overlooked that each of these functions can vary depending on the conditions of time, place, literary type, and the poet's perspective. However, one of the most important functions and responsibilities of poetry is its social function because social events and movements are among the important human issues that have an inseparable connection with the spirit and psyche of human beings. When poetry becomes intertwined with the life of the people in society, it attracts more attention and takes literary works to the edge of immortality. Social events are not always the same, so their reflection in literature and poetry is always different. Different literary forms are also the result of social and cultural conditions, and poetry is a suitable medium for reflecting these events among various literary types.Badr Shaker al-Siyab, a modernist Arab poet, sees poetry as having a social purpose and believes that poets and artists have a great responsibility to their society and the people, which they must fulfill in the best way possible and highlight the pains and desires of their fellow citizens" (Rajaei, 2009: 164).Khalil Matran, one of the pioneer poets of the romanticism literary trend, also believes that every nation makes its own tyrants and oppressors, the silence of the people in the face of oppression and social injustices cause oppression to continue. In dealing with social issues and fighting against oppression, he directly mentions the names of oppressive rulers (Mir Qadri, 2006: 412).Nazik Al-Malaika who is one of the pioneers of realism and the founders of new poetry, believes: "All the visual, auditory and mental emotions a person are formed in society, and to be one of the citizens of this society, he cannot escape from the characteristics that govern it, and such a person whether you like it or not, you have to portray your society. Consquently, community and sociability are natural characteristics of every person, which cannot be considered as a shirt that a person can take off whenever he wants, but in his blood, thoughts and nerves (Al-Malaika, 1962: 264).Ehsan Abbas is one of the Arabic critics who took the social aspects of the poetry in his consideration and believes that the poet's relationship with society takes shape in three distinct ways:a) The social position of poetry in terms of its connection to economic factors, social environment, and values that shape or manifest in the poet's work.b) The social theme or objective that the poet strives to achieve.c) The social impact of poetry throughits reliance on the audience, which can be small and limited or large and extensive (Abbas, 2009: 137).Mikhail Naimeh believes that “Poetry is not merely a combination, coordination, and harmonization of words, rhymes, and rhythms, nor is it simply a creative force. Poetry is the song of the nightingale, the cooing of the dove, the sound of trickling water, and the roar of thunder. It is the smile of a child and the tears of a mother who has lost her child. Poetry has accompanied humans since the beginning of creation and will stay with them from childhood to the moment of death. Poetry is familiar to broken hearts devoid of joy and excitement in this world, as well as to hearts full of sophisticated pleasures and desires” (Naimeh, 1998: 91).The contemporary world has witnessed tremendous changes in human society. These developments are prominently revealed in the field of human relations and affect poetry. Contemporary poetry reflects human experiences. "Today's poet is no longer the old poet who sits on the platform of oratory, exhortation and wisdom, but comes among the people and ranks among them, and shares his lived experience in his poetry with them (Ziyaadini, 1389: 36-37). Therefore, the most important task of contemporary poetry is to reflect the social and human realities of a society, and it is a powerful and influential tool for expressing new ideas that sprout in the mind of the poet. By utilizing the power of expression and the companionship of words, poets can highlight the existing realities in society. On the other hand, human issues and themes have become increasingly complex in human society, and poets consider it their responsibilities to reflect these human realities and strive to achieve this primary and great goal. In this regard, we have witnessed the emergence of poets in two countries, "Palestine and Afghanistan", who have taken steps towards social activism and struggle with a humanistic and social approach. Among all these poets, Mahmoud Darwish and Qahhar Aasi have shone brightly with almost similar destinies in defending the human values of their homeland and people.In this research, among the human themes of these two poets, the components of their social poetry, which have more critical and corrective content, have been examined. Because the analysis of such poetry expresses common pains on the one hand, and clarifies the poet's thoughts on the social realities on the other hand.

 Based on the research conducted alongside linguistic and cultural differences, there are common social themes in the poetry of these two poets. The most important common themes are empathy with the people, reflection of the pain and sorrow of refugees, exile, hope for a brighter future, and the promise of peace. However, what distinguishes the social themes between these two poets is the political evolutions.  In Afghanistan before and after Mujahideen, Qahar Asi, like Mahmoud Darwish, always criticized the occupying forces and defended Islamic and human values in his poetry. But after the Islamic government came to power and the internal wars began, he focused more on criticizing and reflecting on their atrocities. Meanwhile Darwish in his poems, mostly screams the pain of exile and criticizes the aggressions of the occupying forces, but Qahar Asi, in addition to criticizing foreign forces, focuses more on reflecting on internal wars, reflecting on atrocities, and warning against bloodshed. Empathy with the people is also one of his important themes. Alongside his efforts to liberate the country from foreign domination, he is not insensible to the daily lives of the people. In his poetry, he calls on everyone to support and help oppressed people. The poet encourages people to defend national values, kindness, and unity. He has also reflected on the suffering and sorrow of Islamic countries in some of his poems.

The concept of freedom is one of the most frequent concepts of modern epic poetry, which has found different meaningful dimensions due to the extensive social and political developments. With the growth of philosophical schools, especially the philosophy of existentialism, the concept of freedom became one of the most important categories in contemporary life, and the humanistic and existentialist approach provided the ground for intellectual and social revolutions. Jean-Paul Sartre, French philosopher, one of the founders of existentialism had crucial role on the existential thoughts and had deep effects on the thoughts of literary writers. Mahmoud Darvish, Palestinian resistance poet, and Ahmad Shamloo, Iranian contemporary modernist poet, are prominent poets whose poems reflect the concept of freedom, the study of their poems reveals their philosophical an existential dimension. The present study with a glance to Sartre's theories, tries to do a comparative study of Darwish and Shamloo's ideas about freedom, in order to analyze the similarities and differences between their poems and express the manifestations of Sartre's thought in the viewpoint of these poets. According to the present study, the concept of freedom in the attitude of Shamloo and Darwish has a philosophical dimension that is not limited to individual freedom and includes the whole society. The concept of freedom in their worldview, is consistent with the categories of precedence existence over the nature, apprehension and responsibility, negation of metaphysical forces, the instability of nature, and the relationship between death and freedom in Sartre's theory.

Stylistics is a methodical science that emphasizes the understanding of the text and aims to discover the aesthetic values of the structure of the text using its lexical aspects and by comprehending the relationships between its inner components. The poem ‘Aljasar,’ by Mahmoud Darwish, includes topics such as insisting on returning to the homeland, revealing the crimes of Zionists, and remembering the tragedies Palestinians endure. This study aims to analyze and evaluate this poem based on three features of linguistic, cognitive, and literary stylistics, using a descriptive analysis method. Regarding the linguistic features, the beauties of this poem are evaluated by analyzing its music and words. Moreover, in literary analysis, elements of a poem such as metaphor, irony, and symbols are evaluated to explain the most crucial principles of the thoughts of the poet. Finally, by analyzing these features, we have concluded that the poet has aligned his poetic language with the statement of his thoughts and exploits language and literacy as means for stating his thoughts. The poet employs all capacities of the language to inspire the resistance of Palestinians against Zionists to take back their homeland.

Irony is a tool for authors developed in linguistic terms using charming, integrated, and technical methods. An ironic expression has different purposes to make the words understood for recipients without expressing the words directly. This is because the author tends to avoid possible negative feedbacks. In this way, he can prevent the recipients from accurate comprehension. Thus, the recipients guess these mental images and think them possible. Since the irony is required to be comprehended in any situation, the recipient uses the mechanism of interpretation. The present analytical study aimed to investigate the ironic aspects of the poem Nazaf Al-Habib'O shaqaeq Al-Nomaan written by the contemporary poet Mahmoud Darwish. The results of the present study showed that, in this poem, the use of irony along with practical skills, linguistic and rhetorical awareness, and multiple reading strategies keep the recipient away from comprehending the author’s point of view. It can be concluded that interpretations arise from the use of irony in poems make a word more beautiful and clearer so that the recipient could get the content of it.

Synaesthesia is a rhetorical and artistic device. This figure of speech is derived from the combination of two senses or the paradigmatic relations between senses. Poets use this rhetorical device to broaden their imagination in order to create beautiful and impressive imagery that adds to the poetic aspects of the text. This artistic device aims at increasing audiences' literary perception or pleasure by deviating from norms and foregrounding literary conceptions. So, it allows the poets to communicate their feelings to the audience. The present study seeks to examine synaesthesia in two poetry collections, “Don’t Apologize for what You’ve Done ” by Mahmoud Darwish and “From the Fire from the Silk” by Qahar Asi. This descriptive-analytical study, undertaken using the quantitative and comparative literature methods, revealed that both poets employed the aforementioned literary device frequently. Therefore, the remarkable frequency of synaesthesia might be attributed to Asi and Darwish's poetic style. It should be noted that these poets have employed synaesthesia in distinct manners by connecting it to the content, intellectual, and emotional features of their poems.

 Desk research and document mining were used to collect the data. The content was organized using a descriptive-analytic method based on the American school framework for comparative studies. The authors also apply a quantitative research approach to explain and evaluate synaesthesia in the abovementioned works.

 Synaesthesia is an illusory technique of integrating two senses and perceiving one via the other or attributing the characteristics of one to the other. This literary device has been recognized as a significant technique in Persian and Arabic literature because it can pique the audience's attention while also transmitting the poet's sentiments and spiritual experiences. Synaesthesia enables the poet to broaden his or her imaginative horizon and create fantastically impressive imageries, which enhances the poetic effect of a text. “This creative device combines or substitutes one of the human senses with the other one. In this regard, it links the characteristics of one sense to the other. Needless to say, synaesthesia covers not only the five senses but also the abstract senses” (Golchin & Rashidi, 2011: 297). This artistic device is built on a “proclivity to change and combine.” For example, the poet may use this rhetorical device to alter the sense of smell so that audiences experience it via the senses of taste, hearing, and touch, or they see colors through sounds and hear sounds through colors (Modirzadeh Tehrani, 2020: 84-85). Furthermore, by using this aesthetic technique, the poet seeks to create innovative conceptions (Sheikh, 2010: 129).     Mahmoud Darwish and Qahar Asi are two poets who employed synaesthesia to create innovative literary imagery and elegantly express the intended meaning and sentiments. Given the following basic classification, we can analyze the use of synaesthesia in these poet's works:     The first type of synaesthesia is “horizontal harmony”. It results from the combination of two senses, such as sight and hearing, hearing and sight, sight and taste, sight and touch, touch and sight, and so on. The integration of hearing and sight senses is often highlighted in these poets’ works. As a result, this aesthetic combination has caught the poets' attention more than others. The explanation for it might be Mahmoud Darwish's and Qahar Asi's exceptional sight and hearing senses since both have seen war and its devastating effects: both poets can detail the explosion of the shells, cries of the war-torn, and visions of people’s suffering via such a combination.     Vertical harmony is the second form of synaesthesia. Here, poets do not confine themselves to integrating merely two senses: they blend terms related to five senses with terms that represent abstract concepts, creating attractive imagery. In this case, the poet may brilliantly express his mental imagination by using literal devices that render the abstract notions evident (Hassanli, 2004: 282-283). The poets in question have employed a synthesis of sight sense and abstract ideas more frequently since sight is one of the most essential human senses and allows people to interact with their surroundings. The combination of this sense and imagination results in the creation of innovative imagery. Mahmoud Darwish and Qahar Asi transmit their experiences and thoughts vividly via such artistic combination, contributing to the creation of novel ideas in the realm of poetry. 

The findings reveal that, although the poets employed synaesthesia in different manners, what counts is that they established a relationship between the way they use this literary device and the content, ideas, and feelings they attempted to convey via their poetry.     The most notable aspects of these poets’ collections are their intentional use of the aforementioned literary device and its harmony with the theme. According to the sample analysis, synaesthesia has transformed the poems into creative poetry and has been used to convey meaning and increase the literary impression communicated to the audience. Mahmoud Darwish and Qahar Asi have used various types of synaesthesia in their verses on occasion, demonstrating their inventiveness in using this literary device. Darwish’s poetry employs the following synaesthesia combinations (horizontal axis) frequently: (1) sight-hearing combination; (3) hearing-sight combinations; (1) sight-taste combination; (1) sight-touch combination; (2) touch-taste combinations; (2) smell-sight combinations; and (1) taste-smell combination. Darwish's use of synaesthesia on the vertical axis (the combining of five senses with abstract concepts) is also frequent. Accordingly, there are (8) sight-abstract concept combinations; (3) touch-abstract concept combinations; (1) hearing-abstract concept combination; and (1) smell-abstract concept combination. Qahar Asi’s frequency use of synaesthesia in the horizontal axis is as follows: (2) sight-hearing combinations; (5) hearing-sight combinations; (2) sight-taste combinations; (1) touch-sight combination; (2) sight-smell combinations; (1) smell-hearing combination; (1) hearing-smell combination; and (2) hearing-touch combinations. Furthermore, his use of synaesthesia on the vertical axis (the combining of five senses with abstract concepts) is as follows: (15) sight-abstract concept combinations; (1) abstract concept-sight combination; (4) abstract concept-hearing combinations; (1) smelling-abstract concept combination; (1) abstract concept-touch combination; (2) touch-abstract concept combinations.     According to statistical analysis, the most common use of this literary technique on the horizontal axis is synaesthesia created by the hearing-sight senses. Furthermore, sight-abstract concepts are the most often utilized combination in the poets' collections on the vertical axis. In general, we may say that these poets' most active senses are sight and hearing. One explanation for such a focus on these senses might be because poets' sight and hearing senses were stronger than other senses: these dedicated poets had seen shell explosions and terrible wartime scenes. As a result, the combination of various sensations, known as synaesthesia, allows these poets to more clearly depict the sound of war-torn cries and scenes from people's suffering.

Bakhtin’s theory about dialogism of texts, polyphonic novel, intertextual relations and carnivals has inspired several literary critics and theoreticians in west. In Bakhtin’s point of view, human is a social being that finds his/ her truth of being in dialogic relationship with others; therefore, the truth of being of a text not only expresses the writer’s ideology, but also is a place for expression of ideologies possessed by each character that each one of them is representative of a stratum and ideology.  However, this point of view has appeared in analysis of narrative texts such as Dostoevsky’s works initially, relying on it in poetry has also confronted these texts with a new analysis. One of the most important blaze situations of polyphony and logic of conversation is the element of dialogue in these texts. Although, dialogue cannot be the same as dialogism merely, it can be considered as a place for expression of polyphony of literary texts. Therefore, the present study seeks to address the function of polyphony in the structure of poetic texts, meanwhile explaining the voices that Darwish had utilized in his poems through investigating existing dialogues in Mahmud Darwish’s  one poem that is uttered by characters depicted by Darwish and demonstrate dialogism of his poetry. The results of the analysis show that Darwish have not selected monologue in order to demonstrate oppression of the Palestinian people, but in simple narrative formats and various dialogues between Palestinians and occupiers has changed his poems to a place for expression of characters’ legitimacy meanwhile presenting both parties’ point of views and surrounding voices and the reader is invited to his poem as a fair judge.

The semiotic model of Michael Rifater is one of the first semiotic patterns that has specifically studied the literary form of poetry. In this model, much attention is paid to the literary ability of the readership and his reaction to poetry, and poetry reading is done at both exploratory and post-action levels. In the first level, the meaning and superstructure of the text are examined, and in the second level, according to the non-grammatical elements, the deep layers of the text and linguistic implications are analyzed. Resistance and love are the two main themes of Mahmoud Darvish's poetry, and he creates linguistic meanings in these poetic themes by using non-grammatical elements. He hides the main meaning and message beyond the apparent surface of words and consciously delays the understanding of the meaning of poetry. The present study tries to discover the accumulations and descriptive systems of Rita Ahbini's poem in a descriptive-analytical way and relying on the foundations of Michael Rifater's theory of semiotics of poetry, and to recite the structural matrix of the poem to the reader. Explaining the semiotic model of Michael Rifater and explaining the principles of resistance literature in Mahmoud Darvish's poetry and its hidden layers using the semiotic model are the objectives of this research.  Among the results of the reactionary reading of the poem there are several implications of the word "Rita" in Mahmoud Darvish’s works, who mixed it with the concept of homeland and eventually became the symbol of Palestine, and thus put a romantic theme in the service of the concept of resistance. The hypograms of this poem are well reflected in its structural matrix and show a picture of the situation in Palestine and the prospect of resistance

Mahmoud Darvish and Qaisar Aminpour are both poets in whose works identity, both social and individual, have found special growth, maturity and crystallization; social commitment and giving meaning to the formal and structural ideals of a poem have been inseparable components of committed poetry; as many critics have considered the ultimate goal of poetry to be the fulfillment of this commitment. The existence of individual and collective identities in poetry pave the way for the emergence of personal and social ideals by which the poet demonstrates his identification with society and a specific audience. Mahmoud Darvish and Qaisar Aminpour have both used their collective identities to preserve the values of society and the revolutionary spirit, so much that many of the content characteristics of their works can be analyzed from the point of view of this tendency. They are comparable with the love for the homeland, resistance and struggle, collective nostalgia, the history of a nation, etc. that are the tangible pillars of this view. In addition to this committed response, the personal identity has also been clarified - not as a collective identity; but the context of its growth and development has never been completely limited to the individual spirit, and the poet has always taken a step towards the desire to socialize and leave the personal identity.

Speech act theory is known as the fundamental aspects of language pragmatism which considers the role of language in its applications and the contextual use. In such a scientific area of language study, speech act theory focuses on discovering the unobservable relationship between the language and an act known as pragmatics. To this purpose, the present study is an effort to analyze one of the odes of the resistance poet, Mahmoud Darvish, with a descriptive-analytic methodology. It aims to discover the resistance speech acts according to the semantics, context, and pragmatics which are accompanied by the poet in his ode “Qasidat-al-Arz”. As together with John Searl's speech act theory, results show that the assertive and expressive speech acts have the highest frequency among others in the so-called ode. The assertive speech act of the poet was in concordance with proving the geo-political identity, mentioning the truths and the usurped rights of Palestinians. It is with an emphasis on the past to testify his claim in order to promote emotional motivation and esprit. In the expressive speech act, the poet attempts to demonstrate a grim picture of his feelings because of the happenings of his contemporary. His speech acts are stated implicitly which are prerequisites of a poetic text.

Phoenix myth in the poetry of Mahmoud Darwish to the cause of the oppressed Palestinian nation and struggle for emancipation from the yoke of Israeli occupation, despite the desire to reclaim land occupied many wars and crimes, and also tied His poetic developments. He reread phoenix as a symbol of resistance and steadfastness, and the rise from the ashes of death is refresh. Phoenix in the poetry of Mahmoud Darwish of the first tribunal has referred to the " Uhibbuki aw la uhibbuki (I love you, I love you not)" to " Ka-zahr el-lawz aw ab'ad (almond blossoms and beyond) cardboard dimensions" who has changed his last court. In this paper, we have to analyze its dimensions. The results show manifested in three problems: First, the myth of the phoenix in the poetry of Mahmoud Darwish is to say that the aspirations of the Palestinian people and he did not die, but each time the blood of their martyrs and brave youth raised will continue. Second, Darwish's poetry Phoenix in some cases to speak of man and woman is the symbol of calving. Thirdly Phoenix in the final stages of his battle with death and resurrection symbol Darwish life again. The method in this paper is analytical, and tried to critique and analyze the myth of Phoenix and semantic transformation of a great deal in his poems.

Jewish identity is based on the historical, cultural, and religious heritage of the Jews, and the poetic elements which draws the poet's attention to particular events and inspires him to record those events. This research is based on the analytical and adaptive method, the purpose of which is to investigate the concept of Jewish identity and its conceptual structure in Nayman Bialek and Mahmoud Darvish poetry. Mahmoud Darwish compares the Jewish identity with the Arabic identity in order to remove the Jewish-only quality from the Jewish identity and emphasizes on the resistance of the Jews and their help and assistance. In this way, Jewish prophets are portrayed as the heroes who can save the Palestinian people from the Zionist oppression. Bialek's genius has taken many steps in the transformation of Jewish poetry. He employs the myths and religious teachings of the Jews in the service of Zionist philosophy, which leads to the consolidation of the concepts of racism, patriotism, and atheism. This research reveals the Jewish identity in Bialek's poetry and shows that Bialek does not apply the religious teachings of the Jews to serving the glorious purposes, education or poetry, rather he uses it as a means to focus on the concepts of "displacement", "legacy" and "cruelty" to compare the Jewish past and present painful situations such as ghettos, and holocaust. The Jewish identity in Darwish's poetry is based on the story of Hajar, Ismail, and Habukhuk to show the occupation of Palestine by the Zionists and the distinction of religious Judaism and Zionist extremism.

Grimas's semiotics is a type of literary semiotics. This semiotics identifies various aspects such as expression, affect and meaning. In this research, the subject of the study is Qassida al-Rad's poem by Mahmoud Darwish There are poetic and fictional elements in this poem, so Grimes's theory of semiotics is used to analyze its various aspects. The research method is descriptive-analytical and library resources are used. The piece is divided into two parts, the surface structure and deep structure.Then it has been studied semiotically at four levels of narrative, linguistic, literary, and semantic. Important results were obtained in this study such as: The concept of praise for freedom forms the deep foundation of poetry. For the poet, occupation of Palestinian land is an obstacle, so he tries to emphasize the concept of identity. Palestine is a utopia in his mind. An examination of the musical level reveals the intrinsic character of the poet. The tension in the deep part has created contradictory concepts. In the construction sector there is a dramatic contrast. The results of the analysis of this section indicate the poet's activity and the concept of home.

A symbol is an emblem used with the aim of expressing the existential feelings of a poet about a particular subject. The poet has borrowed such a style from prior experiences in order to use it with regard to current events. The reasons for this choice of style are the following: the inability of everyday language to express the present events and the absence of freedom in the society where the poet lives. Similarly, the Palestinian poets have made use of symbols for expressing the bitter realities of life through the compilation of modern poetry by borrowing traditional symbols. Such a connection is realized between the present and previous texts in the light of inter-textual knowledge. Mahmud Darwish is one of the poets who attempted to use various symbols in order to express the social issues of his own community. Therefore, following a descriptive and analytic method, the present study has studied the intertextuality of "La'ab al-Nourd" ode as an example in order to analyze the symbols used in this poem by focusing on the intertextual concept.