نقد ادبی

Archetype criticism is a combined and interdisciplinary approach that shows how the collective unconscious of Jung is present in literary works. Similarly, folk literature is considered one of the most appropriate manifestations of archetypes. In line with this principle, the Taleb and Zohreh system is one of the indigenous stories that emerged from the folk culture of Mazandaran, and among the common people of Mazandaran, some have considered this lyrical system to be the story of Taleb Amoli, a famous poet of the Indian style. Considering the similarities observed between this system and archetypes, this study examines it based on archetype criticism using quantitative and qualitative analysis methods and based on the views of Carl Gustav Jung, and the extent and manner in which the poet uses archetypes such as anima, mask, shadow, travel, and water are measured.

One of the important topics in cognitive linguistics is conceptual blending, which creatively combines two distinct concepts and has been used to explain literary structures. In this article, we demonstrate that the use of conceptual blending is not only for creating imaginative sentences; sometimes, if the genre changes, the type and structure of conceptual blending change accordingly. To examine the impact of genre on types of blending, two books by Sirūs Shamisā, Monsoon (as an example of a literary text) and Literary Criticism (as an example of a scientific text), were selected, and sentences containing conceptual blending were extracted. Ultimately, we found that the data from Monsoon, which are literary in nature, are used to create imaginative scenes and sometimes blend with mythological characters and events, while in Literary Criticism, blending is related to concrete phenomena and events that lead to a clearer understanding of scientific content. Therefore, the literary genre makes the blendings abstract and the scientific genre concretize them. Additionally, it was concluded that Monsoon is a type of macro blending; the entire story is blended with its title, and the plot of the story is blended with the Monsoon storm.

Today, there are new approaches in the field of literary criticism, one of which is psychoanalytical criticism. Psychoanalytic criticism is a form of literary criticism that applies some themes and methods of psychoanalysis to literary texts and gives interpretations of these texts. One of the theories put forth in this field is Ervin Yalom's psychodynamic therapy theory, which explains the four ultimate concerns (fear of death, freedom and responsibility of choice, loneliness, and emptiness) and provides solutions for their treatment and reduction. In this essay, relying on the descriptive-analytical method, the aforementioned concerns and their treatment solutions have been analyzed in the novel "Zahr al-Laymoun and other stories" by Alaa al-Dib in the light of Yalom's approach. The results of the research show that the four concerns and their treatment methods are visible in the text of the novel. These four apprehensions are mostly seen in the main characters of the stories in the novel, and the other characters were surprised. Also, by examining the concerns mentioned in the text of the novel, it was found that out of a total of 88 cases, the loneliness component had the largest share among other concerns with 42 cases. The component of emptiness with 26, freedom and responsibility with 13 and fear of death with 7 items are in the next ranks.

Informed by Gilles Deleuze’s “cinematographical theory” and Mohammad-Reza Shafiei Kadkani’s literary opinions on imagery, the present article endeavours to read and classify the images in the heroic age of Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh. The common ground between Deleuze and Kadkani is movement and time. This study categorises the images into two groups, namely, movement and time, and five categories: 1) rhetoric-based, 2) narrative-based, 3) language-based, 4) action-based, and 5) dialogue-based. This comparative-descriptive research locates itself at the crossroads of interdisciplinary studies.

After works such as Talkhis and Motowal, the three sciences of rhetoric were separated from each other, and the discussion about the defects of verse eloquence in Arabic and Persian rhetorical books was definitively placed in the introduction to the section on "Máāni" (meaning). Prior to that, the authors of Persian rhetorical and literary books such as the authors of Qābūs-nāma, Tarjomān ol-Balāqeh and Hadaiq ol-Sehr fi Daqāyeq ol-Sher have sporadically pointed out some factors of the defectiveness of poetry.. The author of Al-mojam fi Ma’āir Ashār ol-ájam took the initiative and dedicated a separate part of his book to introduce and analyze the defects of poetry and provided examples of Persian poetry for these defects. It is thus asserted that, eulogy and simplicity were the dominant modes in the first period of rhetorical compositions in Persian language, which coincides with the flourishing of Khorāsāni style. Therefore, the defects that are listed for poetry are consistent with the common style of composition in that period and offer a sound criticism. However, in the later periods, when critical texts were reduced to a rewriting of the rhetorical books of the first generation, the defects of poetry found in rhetorical treatises were no longer an accurate scale for criticizing Persian poetry, which had itself undergone changes in the dominant forms. In this analytical-descriptive study using library sources, the defects of Persian poetry were extracted and analyzed by focusing on credible pioneering rhetorical and literary books. The importance of this work lies in the fact that, in Persian literary tradition, "criticism" has been mainly equal to "technical criticism," which implies understanding the delicacies and defects of poetry and distinguishing good poetry from bad poetry.

The term "black poetry" is attributed to a poem that recounts the negative and painful feelings and thoughts of a person. Contemporary poets and writers, influenced by some philosophical theories as well as the social and political situation of their society, turned to a kind of black and pessimistic romanticism and by repeatedly using concepts such as sadness, grief, despair, failure, loneliness, death and... black poetry created. In Iran, many poets and writers were affected by the political and social currents of the Pahlavi period, especially the 1953 Iranian coup d'état and the domination of tyranny and suffocation in the society, and they suffered despair and disappointment and expressed their discontentment in their poems by creating dark spaces and themes of sadness. Hushang Ebtehaj, Siavash Kasraei, Forough Farrokhzad, Mehdi Akhavan Sales, Nosrat Rahmani, Nader Naderpour, etc. were among these poets. In this research, the writer tries to find out how the components of black poetry appear in the poems of this contemporary poet by examining and analyzing the poems of Hushang Ebtehaj.

Fear, being referred to as a form of excitement, keeps the beings alive and it considered as a reaction against probable hazards. It is tangible that these illusional fears and horrors, make a part of childhood and adolescence behaviors, and gradually disappear by the growth of consciousness and the evolution of personality. However, such defensive and behavioral reactions sometimes take place in human entity and lead to behavioral disorders and personality problems and mental illness in a person. Fiction in this field has become as the aid of understanding this fear as accurately as possible in order to clearify the connection between literature and psychology and to make the importance of interdisciplinary studies more obvious. Morbid fear or phobia is so ingrained with the lives of many people that even in the field of literature and especially contemporary fiction. It penetrates from the author's unconscious to the text of the work or is reflected as a pathological fear in the behavior and moods of the characters. The present article examines morbid fears or phobias in Ghesseha-ye-Madjid (Madjid's stories), written by Hooshang Moradi Kermani, and extracts examples of pathological fears in this work in order of frequency. The results of the research indicate that Moradi Kermani has been able to show some kinds of morbid fear or phobia during their behavior, conversations, and beliefs in processing Madjid's and the other characters personality. The authors of the present study, after extracting, comparing, and analyzing different types of morbid panic, were able to identify twelve types of it and, with evidence from the text of the book, present them to the readers on the base of frequency as follows: Scolionophobia, Traumaphobia or Specificphobia, Scopophobia, Anticipatory Anxiety, Nyctophobia, Zoophobia, Socialphobia, Body Dysmorphic Disorder, Thanatophobia, Hemophobia, and Fear of Embarrassment (A Kind of SocialPhobia). Evidence suggests that the absence of parents and the lack of a strong emotional base in Madjid's life can greatly lead to such fears in Madjid.

Introduction:

The confrontation between tradition and innovation in contemporary times caused severe friction between traditionalists and modernists. These confrontations, which were somewhat natural and inevitably existed throughout history, contain benefits and harms that need to be analyzed with the passage of time and the fading of those years. Reviewing those opinions can in turn shed light on our literature in general and literary criticism in particular. Criticisms and opinions of traditionalists and modernists were sometimes mixed with extreme prejudices and unnecessary rejections and denials and sometimes had signs of reality. In any case, the reviews and comments of contemporary poets about ancient literature have always been worth studying. Some tried to destroy Iran's past literature to highlight their innovations, and on the other hand, poets who were fond of classical literature tried to deny new poetic innovations - such as Nima's poetry. Among these two spectrums, there were poets who were both attached to tradition and striving for innovation. In the meantime, it is important to find people who have judged literary works regardless of unnecessary prejudices, which can be a model for fair, scientific criticism and free from false factions in the contemporary era. Simin Behbahani is one of these people who, in addition to being proficient in the field of poetry writing in various formats (especially in the field of ghazal, she has been given the title of “Ghazal’s Nima” (Haqshenas, 1991: 153)), is one of the poets whose opinions and thoughts about classical poetry contain valuable and important points which can be used as a model in the practical criticism of poetry. Based on this, considering the importance of the topic, the main issue of the current research is to investigate Simin's views on Iran's literary past. For this purpose, Simin Behbahani's books, interviews, notes, and conversations have been examined and analyzed in order to present and explain her arguments, opinions, and thoughts about classical poetry.  

Literature Review:

As far as the author has searched, there has been no research evaluating Simin Behbahani's view of Iran's literary past. In some books, references have been made to Simin's critical personage. Ahmad Abu Mahboob (2008) discussed this feature in the book Green Maple Cradle, but he did not investigate her opinions about Iranian classical poetry. Kamyar Abedi (2000) made a brief reference to Simin's literary reflections in his book Singing Ghazal. He also mentioned the power of Simin's analysis in the book Simin Behbahani, Poet and Civil Struggler (2018), which is a rewrite and a new edition of the book Singing Ghazal in which he mainly pays attention to Simin's opinions about contemporary poets. In Simin's festschrift titled A Woman with a Flower Skirt (2004), some notes briefly mention Simin's knowledge and literary studies. Reviewing the articles shows that most of the published articles have been written about the form and content of her poetry, and they are not in line with the topic under discussion. Only in one or two articles are there references to the discussion we are looking for: In the article “The Contexts and Signs of Simin Behbahani's Familiarity with Ferdowsi's Shahnameh and How She was Influenced by It”, Ghodratollah Zarouni (2023) investigates Simin's familiarity with the Shahnameh and its influence on her. In the article “Poetics Conceptions of Forough Farrokhzad and Simin Behbahani; Textual and Metatextual”, Parsa Yaqoubi et al. (2019), have investigated the opinions of Forough Farrokhzad and Simin Behbahani about what poetry is, who is a poet, etc; but they have not engaged with the subject we are discussing. In general, none of the published works have investigated and classified her views on Iran's literary past. 

Methodology:

 In this research, with an analytical-critical approach, an attempt has been made to examine and analyze the opinions and thoughts of Simin Behbahani about Iran's literary past. To achieve this goal, discussions, notes, and works related to this issue have been studied and the desired samples extracted, examined, and analyzed.  

Discussion:

In the current research, an attempt has been made to extract, categorize, and analyze Simin Behbahani’s views on the literary past of Iran by examining all available sources about her. Simin Behbahani is one of the prominent and innovative poets of contemporary times who, unlike some contemporary poets who considered classical literature an obstacle to their innovations and tried to destroy it with their opinions, did not consider tradition and classical literature to be an obstacle to innovation. She believed that disconnecting contemporary poets from the traditions and literary past of Iran is ignoring the linguistic, cultural, and literary capacities of the past, and without those supports and roots, no poet can create a lasting work. Due to living in a scientific and cultural atmosphere and the special conditions of her life, which were discussed in the introduction of the article, Simin knew the past literature of Iran well and was familiar with the opinions and views of prominent contemporary researchers and writers. For this reason, her opinions and views were the result of a mature and cultured mentality that was mixed with poetic taste and talent. The value of Simin's opinions about classical poetry shows itself more when it becomes clear that these opinions and viewpoints are the result of deep reading of classical texts and reflection on them, not just opinions based on prejudice and glimpses without support. It is true that Simin's interpretations and criticisms also take on a tasteful color in some cases, but these analyses originated from a matured taste whose interpretations are based on the atmosphere that governs the works. Simin's criticisms and analyses of classical works sometimes take into consideration the stylistic aspects of other periods of Persian literature, which is very valuable in its own way and shows the scope of Simin's studies in Persian literature in general.  

Conclusion:

In general, Simin's view of Iran's literary past is moderate and accompanied by praise and respect. She always praises Iran's literary heroes and their works and points out the need to connect with the literature of the past and make use of it. Along with these praises, she also lists some issues that hinder innovation, including the need to use a new meter and express the political and social issues of the poet's time, something that, in Simin's opinion, has not been paid much attention to in some past periods. Since Simin came from the heart of the poetry institution and the community of poets, her opinions and evaluations can be useful both for the academic community and a light for contemporary young poets, because she is one of the pioneers in the field of transformation in modern sonnet who still has many followers. In the end, Simin, whether in the field of criticism and opinion or the field of poetry and creativity, has almost never separated from the tradition, and at the same time, she has not remained in the tradition; rather, based on it, she has built her theories and achieved innovation in the field of poetry.

Malakout is a postmodern novel, and what is important in the analysis of a postmodern novel is related mostly to the description of certain literary techniques, which are used to emphasize the futility of the old meanings. These works have characteristics that without paying attention to them, one cannot expect a logical evaluation of the work. Some of these postmodern features and techniques which are very important in this novel and will be discussed here are as follows: meta-fiction, intertextuality, fragmentation, black humor, pastiche, temporal distortion, minimalism, and finally grotesque.

Balance is one of the most important mechanisms of criticism, today more than in the past, its efficiency has been noticed by criticism, and investigating the roots and first sings of its use in ancient Arabic criticism- as a progressive and broad criticism – is a very important point of view. In ancient Arabic criticism, the method of comparison became popular in various literary fields, and in addition to poets and writers it became an important and reliable tool for linguists and grammarians in language research.Therefore ancient Arab historians and critics always used it to introduce and describe the history of scientists.The books written in the field of Arabic grammar or syntax or classes and classification of grammarians and linguists have taken advantage this critical element and used it to compare grammarians and their opinions and linguistic trends.This descriptive-analytical research has investigated the position and function of this important component of balance and comparison in one of the oldest books of grammarian classes, " Marateb al-Nahveen" by Abo Tayyeb alloghavy. The result shows that although balance and comparison was not so prevalent among the syntax Analyzers as it was among the poets, but Abo Tayyeb has used this method in different layers and has applied it in different levels including comparison between finals, between adaptation and inspiration knowledge.

Jacques Derrida's deconstruction is both the result and extension of Dusosaurian constructivism which is organized through the precise and accurate defeat of contradictory semantic forces in the text. Thus, the text's claim diminishes in significance, and the text itself gains more significance. Due to the text's abundance of empty spaces, unspoken words, and permeable gaps and It is the reader's duty to complete these spaces and unspoken spaces throughout the process of continuous confirmation. The current study, conducted through a descriptive-analytical method, analyzed the story of Abu Qir and Abu Sir for a period of one thousand and one nights to gain a new reading and a deeper understanding of how stories are created, and to acknowledge the social and cultural influences that shape it. And by revealing the hidden contradictions and angles in the story through the cues within the text, certainty has broken the original meaning of the story and the results indicate that the neither desirable fictional character Abu Sir is, good, or absolutely good, nor Abu Qir have the personality of honor, evil, or absolutely evil but sometimes both thoughts and actions are measurable, contrary to the appearance of the text. Breaks, empty spaces, and holes also contribute to its fragility, impressionability, and unreliability. The absence of content for comparison means that parts of the story were relied upon by a third person, furthermore, utilize the techniques of rhetoric, such as the concept of Simile for singularity and altering meanings, are semantic proof holes in this work. and establish the foundation for breaking the narrative structure of the story.

The question of whether literary criticism and theory existed in Iran's literary past or not is a question that has arisen in recent decades with the spread of modern literary criticism in Iran. In response to this new question, researchers and literary critics have different orientations. These orientations go back to the motivations and thoughts of these researchers and critics. Some believe in the existence of criticism and literary theory in Iran's past, and some do not accept this. The reasons of the second group are not very convincing. Also, it cannot deal with the evidence and signs of the existence of criticism and literary theory in those days. Iran's literary past has not been without criticism and literary theory; But with the definition of literary criticism and theory that existed in those days, and that definition should not be exactly the same imported definition that is common today of literary criticism and theory. Literary criticism in its modern sense is: creative, theoretical and methodical reading of the text to understand its secondary meanings and implied meanings. It is also a meaning-making approach and a new understanding of the text that is provided by reading the text in a new frame of reference. The theories that make modern literary criticism and differentiate between its types are interdisciplinary theories (see. Culler, 2000: 14). These theories are taken from such sciences as linguistics, psychology, sociology, etc. Unfortunately, sometimes the argument about the presence or absence of modern literary criticism and theory in Iran's past has caused neglect in identifying the tradition of literary criticism in those days and analyzing its characteristics and aspects. This essay believes in the existence of criticism and literary theory in the past of Iran and analyzes the tradition of theorizing and criticism. Because it intends to examine its features and coordinates and introduce a type of theme-oriented literary theory in Iran's past and the literary criticism formed based on it. We have called this type "mystic literary theory and criticism" considering its intellectual foundation and scope.  

This article is a theoretical and developmental article. So this article is written with a descriptive-analytical method. Library sources are used in this article. First, the resources are valued and classified. Then, conclusions were drawn from the information received from them. 

So far, various models have been presented for the typology of literary theories. In our opinion, the model proposed by Raman Selden and Peter Widdowson is the most efficient model for the typology of literary theories. This model was designed with the influence of Roman Jacobsen's (1896-1982) language communication model:Theories addressed to the author: romantic-humanist theories.
Reader-oriented theories: Reader-oriented and
 phenomenological theories.
Theme-oriented theories: Marxist theories.
Text oriented theories: formalist theories and new criticism.
Theories focused on code: structuralist theories.
Koresh Safavi has exactly imitated this model and quoted it in his books, Familiarity with Linguistics in Persian Literature Studies (2019) and Familiarity with the Theory of Literary Criticism (2012).
     According to the ideas presented and the models proposed to identify the types of literary theories, mystical literary theory is considered a subject-oriented theory. Because it has the greatest tendency to the subject. In mystical literary theory, meaning and content are important. This great content and meanings are closely related to "religion". The origin of the keyword "religious poetry" in mystical literary theory is here. In the mentioned discourse, this trend towards meaning versus the trend towards the form or the trend towards the container instead of the container has found many reflections in various fields of philosophy, politics, sociology, psychology, etc That It should be checked. In the following, for example, some manifestations of this problem have been discussed only in the literary opinions of Sufis. In the mystical literary theory, "what to say" is original and more important than "how to say" and this has made the literary work, whether it is a story or a poem, in the most optimistic state, only a tool to fulfill this desire. In the mystical intellectual atmosphere, poetry and poetry have been ridiculed in at least two aspects and considered worthless:The mystics were dependent on religion, and in religion, a poet has not had a pleasant image. The Qur'an describes poets as those who lead astray; They wander in every valley and do not do what they say (Shuara/226-224). In some verses, the Prophet of Islam has been cleared of the slander of poetry and the Qur'an has been cleared of the slander of poetry, and it has been said that the dignity of the Prophet is higher than these.
Until the development of mystic poetry, according to social and economic requirements, poetry mainly belonged to praise poets and a means to praise kings and powerful people. The poet has been looking for wealth with these poems. Romantic topics and descriptions in these poems are also about earthly (worthless) loves.

D Accepting modern literary theory and criticism is necessary and correct. But not in such a way that the fascination and fascination with it leads to the idea of the ineffectiveness of our literary tradition of literary theory and criticism. In the literary past of Iran, there has been literary criticism with a special definition of literary criticism in those periods. Since literary criticism is basically a theoretical practice, then there has been a literary theory in the literary tradition. These theories, which are found in the poetic treatises of philosophers and literary critics, rhetorical books, historical books, biographies and poetry collections, can be classified Based on the models used in the classification of modern literary theories.
According to the models presented in this regard, the mystical literary theory is a theory focused on the subject and is formed on the basis of the ideas and opinions of the Sufis. In mystical literary theory, content and meaning are superior to structure and form. This problem is the center of gravity of mystical literary theory and has shown itself in various ways in the discourse of literary criticism of Sufism. In this theory, the superiority of content over form has led to the dislike of poetry as a common literary form in those days. Also, in rating poets, religious poets are superior to praise poets. When talking about the story, it is looked at as a shell whose credibility is based on the content and the brain that is placed in it.

The history of thought associates man with goodness, reason, law, order, and religion; on the other hand, it regards woman as the ‘other’ and associates her with evil, contravention, defiance, and mysticism. In accordance with the common grounds between mysticism and femininity such as defiance, linear reasoning, and uniaxial discourse, as well as concepts such as life’s essential femininity, love’s dependence on the soul, creativity and creative ability of women, and the constant presence of women in religion, the present article reflects on Rouzbahan Baghli’s Kashf-al-Asrar to showcase how Rouzbahan’s lived experience and aestheticism creates a carnal and feminine dimension. This study claims that through anthropomorphism and the mystical conceptualisation of beauty, the central/conceptual metaphor of the ‘bride’ creates a metaphorical system which presents a unification of beauty, femininity, and carnality. This metaphor serves as Rouzbahan’s mystical centrality in conceptualising the truth, the prophet, the angels, the creator, and himself.

At the beginning of the 20th century, women writers tried to alter the patriarchal structures and regain their subjectivity through writing, escaping syntax, and rupturing language. In this regard, there is a close-knit relationship between language and Écriture féminine in contemporary literature. In her Dream of Tibet, Fariba Vafi represents the patriarchal society of her time. Pierre V. Zima’s sociological approach represents phenomena in light of language. The present socio-critical study investigates feminine ideology and sociolect discourse and their impact on meaning and syntax. According to Zima, the dialogue between form and content presents the literary work as a sign which contains many signifiers and signifieds. At the lexical level, the polarity of the lexemes emanating from the taxonomy of key concepts reveals the discourse of the text. These sociolects create a lexical universe in accordance with the sociolinguistic situation which functionalises the language to conjoin the text and its socio-historical context. In The Dream of Tibet, meaning and conceptual polarities and confrontations, which are the result of societal dichotomies, problematise the narrator’s reliability which, in turn, problematises the subject.

The discipline of literature in the prestigious universities of the world is progressing with up-to-date and practical topics. In the new era, the university has become an entrepreneurial institution that focuses on the production of thought, innovation, idea-centeredness and creativity, the use of interdisciplinary capacities and having thinking in interaction with the world. Meanwhile, the academic field of literature in many advanced universities is trying to address the new approaches of university, a topic that is reflected in the study of literature topics in this university. Nevertheless, these universities continue to seek greater academic legitimacy. The debates that began 150 years ago in areas such as the definition of literature as an academic discipline and the scientific nature of literary research are still ongoing. Stein Haugham Olsen is a professor of English literature and the author of many books and articles in world-renowned journals on the philosophy of literature, literary aesthetics, and so on. In this article, he seeks to examine the evolution of "literary studies" and traces this discussion from the discussions that began in the 1880s at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge on the academic nature of literature and literary criticism to recent decades. Olsen's article emphasizes that literary studies, if it seeks to discover the meaning of literary works, to obtain that meaning in any way with any theory, is ultimately what any good reader can do.

Coined by Simon C. Estok, ecophobia is a prominent and new approach to ecocriticism and environmental ethics, mainly defined as irrational and groundless hatred of the natural world. The ecophobic reading investigates unwanted human biases towards the environment based on irrational fear and hatred of bio-environmental manifestations in literary works. Ecophobia originates from the duality of self/other, leading to xenophobia in the shadow of an irrational fear of the other, i.e., a woman, race, or other species, in this Coined by Simon C. Estok, ecophobia is a prominent and new approach to ecocriticism and environmental ethics, mainly defined as irrational and groundless hatred of the natural world. The ecophobic reading investigates unwanted human biases towards the environment based on irrational fear and hatred of bio-environmental manifestations in literary works. Ecophobia originates from the duality of self/other, leading to xenophobia in the shadow of an irrational fear of the other. Naturophobia, misogyny, racism, and speciesism occur in a context of xenophobia, and many human behaviors in the face of nature and other human beings arise from fear, and this xenophobia leads to domineering behaviors. After presenting theoretical foundations, the study sought to explain the ecophobic components in literary works and how to apply ecophobia in literary criticism. Ecophobia reads literary works anew, trying to improve this relationship by analyzing and examining the relationship between humans and nature in an ecophobic context and expressing the origins of these fears. The research result demonstrates that two distinct types of ecophobia in literary works can be identified. By displaying neglected environmental fears, those works can play a significant role in correcting human relationships with the environment and making us sensitive to our behavior with the Earth.

Abdul Hossein Zarrīnkūb is a prominent Iranian researcher and writer whose extensive research in various fields and his tremendous power in writing and research have made him one of the remarkable contemporary researchers. One of the research methods that Zarrīnkūb uses in most of his works is "note writing," a method which has enabled the author to provide further explanations about the main text as well as presenting extra information about documentations and sources. In this manner, Zarrīnkūb has owned specific style in most of his works to the extent that a significant part of the final pages of his works is dedicated to "notes." The notes are closely related to the original text, and the investigation of their rhetorical-linguistic features makes it clear that they have given a special structure and coherence to Zarrīnkūb’s works due to the author’s unique linguistic and rhetorical explanatory style in writing marginal information, documentations and references.  This feature has made the contents of his main texts more methodical and orderly, which has become one of the components of Zarrīnkūb's personal style and research methods. This descriptive-analytical study has aimed to examine linguistic and rhetorical features of his note writing style so as to shed light on minute details that represent the writer's thought and language style in his “notes.”

The subject of literary criticism has been of great importance in the subcontinent, and many critics have written criticism on both poetry and prose. Many critics and their works have been introduced or even published, but some are still preserved in manuscript form in various libraries. Generally, the written reviews are in prose, but among the existing works, reviews are also written in poetry, which is interesting in its own way. Sheyda Fathpouri, Munir Lahori and Abdul Baghi Sahbai are among the prominent critics of the subcontinent who have tried to experience criticism in the form of order, which seems to have been remarkably successful. Although the regularity of their criticism has caused some limitations. Despite the very valuable works that have been written in the field of literary criticism in the subcontinent, with the identification and discovery of different and innovative works in this field, the scope of literary criticism in the subcontinent becomes wider and more obvious every day, and it shows that this category is of great importance among writers, scholars and writers of that country have been blessed. In this article, we have first introduced the critical accounts of the poem, and then we have pointed out the motives of some of these critics in writing their criticisms, and then we have examined and analyzed these criticisms.

Narrative research is one of the methods of literary criticism that researchers in the field of literature have been busy with. One of the methods of analyzing narrative texts is Grimas' narrative theory entitled "narrative grammar". By using this narrative pattern, it is possible to analyze the types of stories and measure the compatibility or non-compatibility of the stories with Grimas's narrative theory and find the elements in the text. The story of Bahman fortress is one of the magical stories of Shahnameh. In this article, which is taken from the author's doctorate thesis entitled "narrative grammar in the magical stories of the Shahnameh based on the theory of Algirdas Grimas", the researcher intends to criticize this story based on the narrative theory of Algirdas Grimas with the help of the findings of the said thesis. Measure the grimace with it.

Today, the concept of criticism, both from its theoretical and practical aspects, is one of the most important topics studied in various fields of human sciences. In the meantime, historical criticism and literary criticism have the most affinities and have been exposed to the most attentions and controversies. In fact, the common link that has brought these two areas of criticism so close is the centrality of "text" in both areas. Historical texts and literary texts have a lot in common in terms of their "textuality". And from this point of view, historical criticism and literary criticism, which are actually criticism of the historical text and criticism of the literary text, also have these aspects in common. Therefore, practical methods in both historical and literary criticism are based on common principles and foundations. These principles and foundations have appeared in the field of historical criticism in the form of interpretivism and in the field of literary criticism mainly in the form of new historicism. With this description, in this research, the attempt is made to analyze and examine the two areas of literary criticism and historical criticism with an analytical-comparative method and by relying and emphasizing on interpretivism and new historicism.  Key words: historical criticism, literary criticism, interpretivism, new historicism, discourse.