کاهش

Metonymy is one the most important literary devices in literature, and it has been widely studied with metaphor in literary studies and linguistics. Typically, metonymy has been regarded as a figurative meaning of a word versus its lexical meaning. However, it could be found that metonymy exists in every language for daily communication, and its usage is not limited to the literature. So, it plays an important role in any language which is mostly formed out of a reduction on syntagmatic paradigm. The widespread usage of metonymy enriches a language, and it adds to its coherence. In this paper, with a brief review of literature on metonymy studies, and the different issues for its definition, a new definition of genuine metonymy is suggested with a new term of prototype metonymy which has a kind of influence on the audience whether in literary usage or everyday language. Based on the hypothesis of this paper each reduction on the syntagmatic axis is not a metonymy unless it influences the audience in some way, and if it motivates a kind of affective response. Indeed the prototype metonym will be suggested as genuine, and a cline will be claimed to conclude the discussion.

Analyzing supplmented and applied language and linking it with social concepts is one of the main goals of Critical Discourse Analysis and Norman Fairclough emphasizes "change" in analyzing the factor of critical discourse using the same goal. Among the excellent examples of this type of usage, we can mention the changes and evolutions of phonological processes in the new poems of Mahdi Akhavan Sales (M. Omid). The purpose of compiling this article, in which the method of collecting information is library, the method of data analysis is qualitative and the reasoning method is inductive, is to classify the phonological processes of reduction and reduplication in the new poems of Mahdi Akhavan Sales, and the critical discourse analysis is based on the triple models of Norman Farclough that is description, interpretation and explanation, so that the unsaid and white lines of the application of these processes in the new poems of Mahdi Akhavan Sales can be determined in this way. Processes that the poet in his conscious mind apparently did not pay any attention to the frequency of their use, but only tried to make the language of his native people serve to express concepts by using archaism and nativism and the literary backgrounds of Khorasani 's style; But the high frequency of using the phonological process of reduction compared to the phonological process of reduplication should be searched in the unconscious of the poet and his actions and socio-political approach and ideology of his era.

Regarding the importance of the quality of religious texts translation such as Qurchr('39')an and Hadith, the importance of evaluating this kind of translations is undeniable to preserve them. Among these texts, the translation of Sahifa Sajjadiyya is the one to draw less attention to be studied. One of the valuable translations in this regard is of Fouladvand which suffers from suppression. Suppression, part of negative translation techniques, has received more attention in the Garcés model. This model, proposed to evaluate translation at four levels, is divided into three main groups of addition, conservation and suppression. Suppression includes Omission, Contraction, simplism, modification in rhetorical analysis and Translator error. Applying a descriptive-analytical method, the present article examines the cases of suppression and frequency in Fouladvand translation to ensure its accuracy and conformity with scientific principles and to evaluate it scientifically. The basis of this assessment is to answer this question: How are the translational suppressions reflected in Fouladvand translation regarding the Garcéschr('39') suppression pattern? The results of this study show that the examples of suppression affecting this translation are: 1. Types of omissions (omission of a word, omission of several phrases or sentences and irregular omission of sentences, 2. Suppression or reduction (ellipsis, converting the passive to the active tense, nominalization, converting plural to singular) 3. Change in rhetorical analysis and 4. translator errors (semantic-lexical errors and syntactic-syntactic errors). The result indicates also the most frequent reduction is found in word omission and grammatical errors.

Layzangan is a village of Darab in Fars, Iran, located 54 kilometers to the East of Darab. Its population is about 2000. In this article, the writer attempts to investigate phoneme processes of assimilation, elision, and addition in the Layzangani dialect. The data of this research shows the new generations use of the words with little phonological changes unlike their parents. In this dialect, the assimilation phonological process is more active than any other studied ones. And many words have been changed under the influence of assimilation. Among the vowels of this dialect the assimilation of the open vowel /i/ to /u/ and the exchange of low vowels /e/ and / a/ to /o/ at the beginning of the words are used more frequently .The other active components of this dialect is assimilation /ab/, /ab/, /ab/ and / af / to compound vowel /o/. The results obtained in the case of phonological analysis of insertion and increment show that in special cases, when two vowels are included in this dialect, insertion function is more frequent in this speech, the insertion function of (y) is more than the other one. Sometimes, a ring is added to the speech chain, which is not known reasonably. In the Phonological process, the reduction is followed by the lessening of the consonant /t/ followed by the consonant /s/ consonant /d/ after /n/ is more frequent. If the suffix is added to many of these words, since it begins with the vowels, the consonants /t/ and /d/ appear in the form of /ss/، /zz/ و /nn/ at the same time, assimilation process has been occurred.

The Badroud and Arisman's dialect is the one of the original dialect in the central part of Iran. Although it has lived in the obscurity, its literary life continues. This dialect is far from the researcher's perspectives and there is no scientific study over it. Thus, few people hardly know of it. But field studies suggested that the phonological process is very important in this dialect. It is one of the most distinctive characteristics of it, by changing any vowel and consonant it can enrich the language and develop vocabulary-building techniques. This dialect doesnt adopt the original form of the foreign words more or less than the others. So, the phonemes will be changed, removed, or added to the words. However, considering of the phonological process can show its hidden aspects and will define its close relation with the standard Persian language. Thus, the author has analyzed this subject for its novelty and importance.

Metonymy is one of the most important processes of semantic change in the language, which besides receiving a high degree of attention by rhetoricians and historical semanticists, has been, at least for three decades, considered by cognitive semanticists as a process at work in everyday speech. The theory of Lexical Concepts and Cognitive Models (LCCM) proposed by Vyvyan Evans in 2006 in the form of an article and within the framework of cognitive semantics explains how the meaning functions in the language, especially based on metaphoric and metonymic processes and how the speakers understand these processes. Based on this theory, words don’t have ‘meanings’ in and of themselves and the meaning of a word is subordinate to the utterance in which it occurs. The present article studies this theory with data in the Persian language, evaluating the process of metonymy within LCCM framework. It concludes that first, distinguishing absolute meaninglessness in words, in a word-based approach, is essentially considered a methodological problem. Second, one cannot synchronically distinguish a process called metonymy, especially in its traditional definition; instead, it should be considered a process based on ‘decreasing’ on the syntagmatic axis, not a process based on the proximity of two concepts on the paradigmatic axis. Thus, words can be considered as units that have meaning when decontextualized, but are not ‘meaningful’. Such a view liberates us from the troublesome framework of word-based approaches.

Metonymy has been studied first as a semantic trick in creating poetry and then as one of the features of everyday speech in different lexical semantic approaches. Opposed to its classic definition, we cannot consider metonymy as the application of a word in its literal meaning or in the meaning of the other word. The present article studies this process with data in the Persian language. It concludes that what is investigated as metonymy in its traditional definition and especially in different lexical semantic approaches, is just a kind of the application of "decreasing". Decreasing includes much more cases, and what is presented as the cases of metonymy is just part of the function of this process. Basically, there is no process as metonymy in its traditional view. In other words, there is no synchronic metonymy.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the change route of Persian address terms in a period of two hundred years, divided into three distinct historical sessions including Qajar (1170/1791-1304/1925), Pahlavi (1305/1926-1357/1979), and Post Islamic Revolution (1357/ 1979 -up to now). Data was extracted from a corpus of 24 novels and travel notebooks which were selected from the three periods under study. Data analysis indicates that Persian address terms and types have changed through time in line with changes in society. They have shown to change in different ways of deletion, addition and change in frequency, in all three historical periods of Persian language. Increase in the use of three categories of “personal names”, “intimacy terms”, and “zero address terms”; and decrease in the use of “honorifics”, “educational/cultural titles”, and “teknonyms” in all periods reveal that the use of Persian address terms has moved from more formality/less intimacy to less formality/more intimacy. Increase in the use of formal and informal religious titles in Post Islamic Revolution period is the logical result of establishment of an Islamic government. Also, changes in address terms and types are to a large extent affected by different social factors, the most influencing of them are; religion, politics, education, gender-equity, social situations and interpersonal relations.

Phonetic reduction is consistently considered as a challenge for speech recognition systems. Among them is the reduction of Persian telephonic numerals /do-noh/ (2-9)، /haft-haʃt/ (7-8) and /se-sefr/ (3-0). The acoustic analysis of the telephonic signals /se-sefr/ shows that the deletion of /r/ diminishes the phonological distinctions between [se-sef] pairs، however the phonetic cues in particularly vowel /e/ including vowel duration، F2 and F3 locus equations can still transmit this phonological contrast. Word recognition systems can recover the reduced forms by implementing these acoustic cues.

In the present paper, the increase of tension from the viewpoints of Maulana and Frankel,their similarities and differences are explored. Although these two figures are of different stance regarding the ultimate objective and the way to attain it, but they both have common points in some regards and those commonalities are associated with increase of tension. In contrast with Freud, Frankel believed in the increase of tension and thought what human being need is not a tensionless situation. He asserted that the main factors behind the efforts and actions of human being are his wishes and targets which drive him forward. The higher one’s objective it, the faster he endeavors to attain it. Maulanaalso believed in increase of tension despite of lack of definite quotation or narrative allusions from his. However, he recommended hardworking and developing thoughtful decisions public to the public. Maulana believed that when human beings add to their efforts, they attain their objectives more quickly.

Translation is the transmission of one linguistic system into another، on all linguistic and metalinguistic levels. The same process is true in the translation of The Holly Qur’an، which is regarded as God''s word and carries the most prominent message for mankind’s guidance. As a consequence، in the translation of The Holy Qur’an no linguistic or metalinguistic level should be distorted. To investigate such instances، two Surahs (translated by three translators: one by a Muslim Shiite، another by a Muslim Sunni and the last one by a Christian translator) have been selected to be evaluated on the level of discursive constraints using Hatim and Mason''s (1990) framework of discourse analysis. The results of the analysis showed that most limitations imposed on translation were at the level of transitivity، and the least imposed discursive limitations were at lexical cohesion level. It can also be concluded that if the translator is well aware of Qur’anic language and its rhetorical content، he can preserve the formal properties of each verse and therefore become only confined to semantic expansion، reduction and recurrence. As such، he can be more successful in his rendering with fewer limitations.