literature

This article aims to analyze and examine Baghdad's representations and address why they appear in Persian literary works until the 8th century AH. The study uses a descriptive and analytical approach. The most significant depictions of Baghdad in Persian literature appear up until the 7th century AH, i.e., before the fall of Baghdad. Part of this reflection relates to the word "Baghdad" itself, which is prominently used in literary texts with its literal, figurative, and symbolic meanings, as well as in proverbs. Another aspect can be found in Baghdad's descriptions, both praise and criticism. Descriptions of titles, names, and noble figures of Baghdad, along with the poet's admiration for it, are examples of the city's praise. The disorder in Baghdad during a certain period, combined with some historical and narrative accounts, led to criticisms of the city. The city's architectural works and its role as the center of the Abbasid Caliphate and a hub of knowledge and civilization contributed to its fame.

Currently, in addition to playing the main role of education, universities should strengthen the entrepreneurial skills and characteristics of students to enter the field of work and entrepreneurship in order to realize the development of entrepreneurship in the country and reduce the unemployment rate of university graduates. In this research, the evaluation and comparison of entrepreneurial personality traits of Arabic language and literature students of Semnan University has been done. The present research is considered to be a descriptive-survey research from the point of view of objective, application, and from the point of view of data and information collection. The statistical population of the research includes undergraduate and graduate students of Semnan University who were randomly selected and analyzed using the Karjesi and Morgan table. Also, a standardized questionnaire was used to collect information. Data analysis was done through descriptive and inferential statistics. The results of the research showed that the students of Arabic language and literature of Semnan University are in an unfavorable situation in terms of risk-taking, creativity and challenge-seeking. Also, there is a significant difference between male and female students in the characteristics of risk-taking, dreaming, internal control center, and seeking a challenge; However, there is no significant difference in entrepreneurial characteristics among undergraduate and graduate students. 

Archetypes serve as fundamental building blocks and inherited attributes of human beings that profoundly influence behavior, manifesting in myths, symbols, and imagery. These archetypes possess an unconscious content that has evolved over millennia within the psyche of humanity. Among these archetypes, the "Self" and "Shadow" hold essential roles in Jungian psychology, aiding in the interpretation of individual identity and the inner conflicts of individuals. In "The Dinner of the Cypress and Fire," the protagonist's quest for identity and self-awareness is portrayed through love and complex human relationships. In contrast, "On Water" depicts the character's journey towards recognition of the other half of the "Self," that is, the "Shadow," confronting existential crises and fears. A deep analysis of the narrative elements reveals that understanding and interpreting the characters through the lens of archetypes not only possess a psychological and symbolic structure but also carry unconscious content. This exploration highlights the mental landscapes of human cultures and recounts the behavioral and experiential patterns of humanity since the dawn of being and authenticity. Overall, this research delves into the archetypes of "Self" and "Shadow" within "The Dinner of the Cypress and Fire" by Shahryar Mandanipour and "On Water" by Guy de Maupassant. The findings of this study underscore the significance of literature as a tool for exploring human psychology and social interactions, indicating that literature can act as a reflective medium for the profound depths of human existence.

Examining physical and psychological disorders in literary works through the lens of clinical symptoms is an approach that can open new horizons for readers. However, such research have not received much attention in Persian literature. This qualitative study analyzes the components related to borderline personality disorder in the story Guide to Dying with Medicinal Herbs by Atiyeh Attarzadeh, utilizing the diagnostic criteria outlined in the DSM-5. The results indicate that six criteria from the DSM-5—namely, efforts to avoid abandonment, unstable interpersonal relationships, impulsivity, recurrent self-harm, feelings of emptiness, and paranoid ideation—can be identified in the main character of the story. Furthermore, focusing on this disorder in the protagonist enhances the story's believability by elucidating the motivations behind various events. Therefore, this approach not only deepens the understanding of the behaviors and mindset of individuals with borderline personality disorder but also enriches the reading experience of literary texts.

Although language and verbal communication have a significant role and importance in the continuation of our individual and social life, it must be acknowledged that a significant part of human communication is done through non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication includes a diverse range of actions and the most complex human concepts and meanings of behaviors, such as facial expressions, look, facial color, walking and sitting, clothing, etc. they give Audiences are more influenced by non-verbal elements than verbal elements in the process of communication. Examining the quality of the impact of Shahriar's poetry through communication science and examining the process of non-verbal communication leads us to these results First of all, the secret of Shahriar's poetry's longevity lies primarily in the sincerity and purity of the poet in dealing with the events of individual life and social culture, including popular beliefs and beliefs, secondly, in the social and cultural interaction when the communication process is established, the process of making meaning through signs is active. and another point that can be understood from this deep thought of Shahriar in terms of culture, society and communication, is to pay attention to the indicator of body postures.

This study investigates how well the content of Persian textbooks for lower secondary education aligns with established principles of the Persian language and literature curriculum. Utilizing a content analysis approach, the research focuses on a sample of lower secondary education textbooks in Persian. The analysis encompasses various components such as book texts, poetry selections, illustrations, activities, exercises, and self-assessment tools. Specifically, 33 units from seventh grade, 34 units from eighth grade, and 35 units from ninth grade were scrutinized. Qualitative data analysis employed a coding technique while quantitative aspects relied on frequency counts and percentages. Findings reveal that across all three educational levels in Persian literature textbooks, one principle received a very favorable evaluation; 13 principles were rated as good; 28 principles were deemed acceptable; 11 principles were categorized as average; and 16 principles were identified as weak. Notably, the content exhibited its strongest alignment with the principle emphasizing cultural foundations and educational values, whereas it showed its weakest alignment with the principle advocating for the integration of foreign literature alongside Persian literature within a culturally educational framework. Consequently, it is advised that textbook authors prioritize addressing those principles demonstrating lower alignment during revisions and that educators incorporate these principles into their instructional design.

Epitaphs hold significant sociological value for examining public attitudes toward death. Across various global cultures, composing poems and prose on epitaphs is a common practice. In a recent study, the content of epitaphs in Iran was scrutinized. The findings reveal that Iranian epitaphs predominantly feature the following elements: appeals to the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) and the infallible imams (peace be upon them), with particular emphasis on Imam Hussein (peace be upon him); detailing the occupation of the deceased, both explicitly and through descriptions of their belongings; the deceased's social status, subtly conveyed through verses, hadiths, and quotations; personal attributes of the deceased, such as age, gender, virtuous character, and nobility; references to the circumstances and location of death, including death during pilgrimages, martyrdom, and the belief in the evil eye; historical context of the time of death, often intertwined with appeals to the innocent (peace be upon them) and aspirations for the deceased to attain heaven; humor is also occasionally integrated into epitaphs; expressing benevolence through prayers for the deceased, pilgrims visiting the grave, and grieving friends; the portrayal of death as a transition rather than annihilation through statements announcing the passing; and the selection of Qur'anic surahs and verses for tomb inscriptions, with a focus on their eschatological significance, virtues, and properties, while also recognizing their social stature.

In his work History of Kurdish Literature, Alaaddin Sajadi endeavors to establish a foundational framework for researchers in Kurdish literature, elucidating the unique experiences of the Kurdish “volks Geist.” In the “Kurd and Philosophy” section, Sajadi presents key issues concerning philosophy, the relationship between philosophy and literature, the origins of philosophy, and the concept of “Kurdish philosophy,” all of which merit further reflection. Given that this text represents a Kurdish author's first significant engagement with philosophy in the Kurdish language, it warrants thorough analysis and exploration. This paper employs a phenomenological-hermeneutic approach to contextualize Sajadi’s thought and examine his perspectives on literature and philosophy, reinterpreting the discussed section within the framework of Sajadi’s “Cultural Project.” Furthermore, through a hermeneutic lens, the author seeks to illuminate two distinct interpretations of the concept of beginnings in Sajadi’s text, emphasizing the potential emergence of philosophy within Kurdish rationality. The central question guiding this investigation is: What is Sajadi’s approach to the interplay between philosophy and literature, and why does he feel compelled to address philosophy and “Kurdish philosophy” within a narrative focused on the history of literature?

Comparative literature is a type of literary research that has emerged in a modern form in recent years among Europeans and has gradually found numerous followers in Iran. "Comparative literature emerged in the early twentieth century among professional historians; François Simiyan and especially Marc Bloch, presented two projects to the College de France in 1928 and 1933, which of course led to the establishment of a chair in the history of comparative European societies in the early days. This type of literature has evolved in synchrony with the contemporary era. In other words, comparative literature is defined as examining national literature and its cultural and historical relationships with literature of other nations. It involves analyzing the deep connections between cultural, historical, political elements in a way that allows for the transfer of culture or other elements to other nations. Examining the deep connection between cultural, historical ,political and so on. So that other cultures or elements can be transferred to other nations. What is internalized throughout this comparative literature is a picture of the concept of transition and relationship. Any Similar narrative among two cultures in different forms can be examined in the field of Comparative Literature. Hippolytus describes the death of the hero after confronting his stepmother Federa, the second wife of Theseus. Cursed by Aphrodite, Federa falls in love with Hippolytus so much that he becomes physically ill and decides to end her suffering through suicide. He tries to save her by revealing her secret to Hippolytus and encouraging her to mutual love, but Hippolytus responds with horror and disgust and humiliates Federa. He, who has been deprived in despair and does not want to accept the real reason for ending her life, hangs herself and leaves a note to Theseus accusing his son Hippolytus of raping her. Theseus, furious, uses one of the three wishes Poseidon, his father had given him, Theseus asks Poseidon to kill Hippolytus, who escaped from the palace to hunt. Poseidon sends a sea monster to terrify Hippolytus' chariot horses that become uncontrollable and throw their master out of the chariot. Hippolytus, trapped in a leash, is dragged to death. Artemis reconciles the father and son by telling the facts and comforts the dying Hippolytus promising to include him as a holy person in religious acts so that his memory may live on forever. In the story of Siyavash, soudabeh , keykavoos wife, falls in love with Siyavash, and after successive attempts to deceive Siyavash, fails and accuses her; this causes Siyavash to be rejected by his father again after passing the fire and successfully testing, and goes to war with Afrasiab and leaves the palace. After the conquests and defeat of afrasiab's Army, siyavash is driven from the palace and takes refuge in afrasiab for not killing the hostages and disobeying the command of keykavos, and after many ups and downs, he is finally killed by afrasiab. The purpose of this article is to examine the components of a real tragedy in the two myths of Siyavash and Hippolytus of Europide, so that by comparing the play Hippolytus and Siyavash 's epic, the decisions arising from the excitement of both heroes, errors, successive events in the form of a tragedy, and to look for the cause of tragic events. 1-the hypothesis of the researchers is that love as a destructive element has influenced the power of reason and wisdom and has dominated the role of reason and has led to wrong decisions on both sides with destiny and fate. 2-researchers believe that both  the tragedy of Siyavash and Hippolytus have the main components of a tragedy, the introduction, successive conflicts, errors of pride and youth, compassionate elements such as failure in life, false accusations, migration to a foreign land and at the end of a sad death, which Schiller considers a successful tragedy from the beginning of the story to the end for the author and the audience.

The research method is based on the mythological and narrative nature of it, conducted on original texts using analytical and descriptive methods and library collection. In this method, Schiller's theoretical concepts are first examined based on the structure of tragedy and then a comparative analysis of the two tragedies "Siyavash" and "Hippolytus" (comparing events and discourses) is carried out.

Aristotle's points on the principles of literary forms, dramatic literature and the art of playwriting in this book were among the most advanced theories in world literature until the 18th century. Although thereafter, many doubts and criticisms were raised over Aristotle's opinions and the new style of narrative play was proposed by Bertolt Brecht, the new theories did not exclude the value of Aristotle's views (starmi, 201:2015). As mentioned earlier, Schiller has repeatedly described the issue of beauty in poetry and drama in several plays and letters he wrote about aesthetics. Beauty is something that increases our thinking power and invites abstract imagination, strengthens the mind for any kind of resistance, but makes it harder in the same proportion and deprives us of talent in the same proportion that helps us in more mental activities (Schiller, 2006:131).  According to Schiller, the main elements of any tragedy are the creation of fear and anxiety by the narrator so that the audience feels in harmony with the hero and reaches an understanding of absolute beauty and pleasure. ‏1- in tragedy, certain events are presented to the imagination or senses of the poet at the time of realization. These fantasies are present, and the audience immediately sees them without third-party intervention.‏ 2- tragedy is the sequential narrative of events, of a heroic act. Tragedy should not only represent tragedy by imitating people's feelings and emotions, but also show the events that trigger these feelings and the relationships in which these emotions are manifested.‏ 3- tragedy is a separate event from the heart of events, although it may often seem tragic, it is not a tragedy in itself. To achieve a successful tragedy, several events are required, one over the other, such as cause and effect and appropriately connected to form a whole. In the interpretation and analysis of data according to the Schiller paradigm, it should be said that in both the epics of Siyavash and Hippolytus, there is a narrative of failures, sorrow and regret, destiny and a tragic ending in common. The hero in tragedy must come from a well-known family or be accompanied by the blood of the kingdom. From the very beginning of the story, the deviation and the wrong decisions of the hero of good and evil form the main form of tragedy. The Hippolytus show, unlike the story of Siyavash, which begins at the birth of the hero, is a story that begins at the moment of Federa's blame for the seduction of Hippolytus and the rebuke of Federea servant by Hippolytus. "When Federa first begins to tell her secret to her servant, she speaks of her mother pasephia and sister Ariana and identifies her memory and inheritance, while Federa knows this is the point where she is close to Hippolytus. Both idealists are young, and each remembers a mother who has tasted the cruelty of Aphrodite. In the tragedy of Hippolytus, the end of the story is told in the language of Artemis. The first tragic form is an introduction that presents the end of the story to the audience from the beginning. From the very beginning of Federa's death, the language of Aphrodite is expressed as a general drawing. After Aphrodite, another scene is drawn. The prayer and recitation of the choir gathered to praise Artemis.

Love in the tragedy of Siyavash and Hippolytus on the part of women is a destructive and devastating factor that kills the hero to death. Forbidden love in a colorful way in the story creates an introduction to a sad narrative that begins the crisis and knots of the story. In Ferdowsi's speech, there was a complaint of fate and fate, and the narrator has a questionable state, but in Europe, the fate of the hero is certain for his father, because until the end of the incident, the father is suspicious of the son. The sequence of events in Siyavash's story proceeds chronologically and longitudinally, but in the Hippolytus tragedy, the scene of Hippolytus worship and Federa's tragic songs of love begin. The story of Siouxsie continues after his death with the Revenge of the Iranians, but the story of Hippolytus ends with the scene of his death and the dialogue of Artemis. The ending in the Hippolytus tragedy is very simple and shaped by the tragedy of the hero's death, but Ferdowsi in the Shahnameh continues the story of Siyavash with sweet revenge. The arousal of compassion in both works has taken a successful path for the hero, leading to the aesthetic phenomenon and the pleasure of the audience according to Schiller's theory, and until the end of the story, the audience does not lose a sense of solidarity with the hero.

In the realm of literature, narratives deeply embedded with themes of tradition, superstition, and the complexities of human nature often captivate readers across generations. Two such timeless works, "The Devil's Stones" by Munirou Ravanipour and "The Lottery" by Shirley Jackson, stand out as compelling pieces that explore the darker aspects of society and the human psyche. This comparative study delves into the eerie similarities and intriguing differences between these two gripping tales, shedding light on how they both unravel chilling truths about the societies they depict. This study embarks on a journey through these haunting narratives to uncover the nuances that make them captivating pieces of literary art.

The following Comparative Study of "The Devil's Stones" by Munirou Ravanipour and "The Lottery" by Shirley Jackson employ a structured methodology to effectively analyze and draw parallels between the two narratives. First it conducts a comprehensive literature review on both "The Devil's Stones" and "The Lottery" and analyzez critical essays, scholarly articles, and other relevant sources that discuss the themes, characters, symbolism, and narrative techniques employed by Ravanipour and Jackson in their respective works. Secondly the article performs a close textual analysis of both works to identify key literary elements such as plot structure, character development, setting, and symbolism paying special attention to how the authors use these elements to convey their thematic concerns and engage with their audiences.thirdly it develops a comparative framework based on Rene Wellek’s theory of comparative literature that outlines the specific aspects it intended to compare and contrast between "The Devil's Stones" and "The Lottery" including thematic similarities and differences, stylistic techniques, socio-cultural contexts, and narrative strategies employed by the authors. Then it explored the central themes present in both narratives and examined how Ravanipour and Jackson address common themes such as tradition, community dynamics, human nature, violence, and fate as well as comparing and contrasting the characters portrayed in "The Devil's Stones" and "The Lottery." Going through their motivations, relationships, and the ways in which they contribute to the overall narrative structure and thematic development of each story.

In the discussion section, similar themes are deliberated in "Devil's Stones" and "The Lottery." One of these shared themes is the anti-superstition stance taken by Moniro Roufinopour and Shirley Jackson. In the narrative of "Devil's Stones," superstition holds sway over the community. Moniro Ravanipour  endeavors to depict the younger generation challenging and eclipsing the antiquated beliefs of the elder generation with their illuminating perspectives and broader horizons.The storyline unfolds with Maryam, a first-year medical student, returning to her village for the semester break. The villagers cast doubt on her innocence, leading the elderly nanny and the villagers to investigate her purity. The narrative's crux lies in the confrontation between the elderly nanny and Maryam. In "Devil's Stones," Maryam, true to her name, strives to defy entrenched superstitious customs and traditions of the past:She strolled through various alleys, where open doors adorned with deer horns and mountain goats acted as protective symbols against misfortune and disaster. Fast forward eight years, he would become a doctor and return to the village. Perhaps by then, he would witness these symbols being taken down one by one, showcasing patience as a virtue. Feeling disheartened by the sight of these adorned doors, she contemplated opening a space and seeking assistance from the young women in the village. She couldn't shake the memory of witnessing the nanny's actions towards a neighbor's woman some years prior. During a time when the neighbor was suffering from a stomach ailment, the nanny attempted an unorthodox remedy by waving fire and a pipe in the air, causing the woman to writhe in pain. Urged by agony, the woman pleaded for more salt to be thrown into the fire, but to her horror, the nanny forcefully pressed a scalding hand onto the woman's thigh, resulting in a piercing scream (Ravanipour 1990: 14).In her compelling short story "The Lottery," Shirley Jackson denounces the harmful traditions entrenched in society and casts a critical eye on the unquestioning adherence to these customs. The narrative revolves around a small American village's annual ritual known as the Lottery, where a resident is arbitrarily chosen and subjected to being stoned as a means to purportedly bring about prosperity and safeguard the town from misfortune. Nebeker asserts that Shirley Jackson exposes the innate cruelty that lurks beneath the veneer of civilization, a theme camouflaged within the story's fabric (Nebeker, 1974: 100). Nebaker recognizes the narrative's influential impact and contends that the psychological jolt stemming from a ritualistic homicide within the mundane setting of a close-knit community lingers long in memory. Within this tale, ostensibly in the name of village welfare, the inhabitants partake in a ceremony called the lottery, honoring the ancestral tradition of selecting an individual for stoning. Shirley Jackson deftly employs various artifacts such as the enigmatic black box, stones, and character names to elucidate deeper meanings beyond their literal interpretations. These symbolic elements are intricately intertwined to depict a stark portrayal of a community mindlessly adhering to archaic and superstitious practices. Through these evocative symbols, Jackson guides the reader towards a sobering realization of the profound dangers and tragedies that unfold when individuals mindlessly conform to tradition without questioning or understanding the rationale behind their actions.

"Devil's Stones" and "The Lottery" were compared by René Wellek. Through this comparison, it was discovered that these two narratives share similarities in terms of literature and intertextuality, encompassing the equilibrium and parity of characters, colors, symbols, and themes.In the Devil's Stones, the elderly nanny mirrors balance and parity with the aged Warner. Warner, whose name implies caution, emulates the role of the nanny. Both characters caution against perpetuating superstitions. They serve as the custodians of the village, advocating for the adherence to misguided customs. The color black recurrently emerges in both narratives as a symbol of malevolence, obscurity, and gloom. Additionally, a prominent motif in both stories is the stone, symbolizing obstinacy and resistance to enlightenment and progress.The youth in both stories challenge erroneous traditions, striving for the dismantling and abolition of such superstitions, indicating a generational conflict present in both narratives. Utilizing the village backdrop, both stories highlight the myopia and stagnation prevalent among the populace, as they combat superstition. Tragically, both tales culminate in a somber and desolate conclusion Tessy and Maryam meet their demise beneath the stones. The authors depict Tessy and Maryam as victims of callousness, cruelty, and the darkness that prevails in individuals who transition from obedience to righteousness to succumbing to their own self-interests. These unfeeling individuals, ensnared by superstition, have forsaken reason and justice. By juxtaposing these two stories, it becomes apparent that "The Devil's Stones" and "The Lottery" merit recognition in the realm of global literature. The authors address universal concerns, decry oppression, and employ their pens in defense of the downtrodden. The anti-superstition stance, a universal theme in this analysis, unites these two writers and brings them together, as both Muniro Ravanipour  and Shirley Jackson prioritize serving humanity, striving to liberate it from the clutches of superstition. Ravanipour  and Jackson critique those who view religion merely through its rituals and external facades, neglecting ethics. Despite the resemblances in content and narrative style, accounting for Shirley Jackson's chronological precedence, it can be posited that Muniro Raufanipour was somewhat influenced by Shirley Jackson as a distinctive storyteller and influential figure in the field of storytelling.

Taking into account the views of students and professors, the current study presents a comparative analysis of the role of teaching Arabic literary texts in developing the four language skills at universities of Tehran, Kharazmi, Alzahra and Allameh Tabatabaei. Using survey method, the present study is aimed at reviewing teaching methods of Arabic literature textbooks in undergraduate courses of Arabic language and literature as well as detecting the success rate of professors in teaching these textbooks. Besides, this study makes an attempt to get the students closer to the goals supposed by the Ministry of Sciences and Research. Moreover, the present study investigates the use of teaching standards for Arabic literature textbooks in developing language skills. Last but not least, the current study provides some approaches to improving language skills. The statistical population of this study includes all students of Arabic language and literature (5th semester and higher) and professors at the above-mentioned universities. In addition, it uses random sampling; 12 professors specialized in the field of teaching Arabic literature textbooks and 80 undergraduate students at 5th semester and higher have been randomly selected from the aforementioned universities. The instruments of the study involve two researcher-made questionnaires. To analyze the data, SPSS software, Pearson’s correlation, and F & Chi-squared tests have been employed. Some of the findings of this study indicate that there is a significant difference between Tehran, Kharazmi, Allameh and Alzahra universities with respect to professors’ efforts to improve the four language skills. Also, there is a significant difference in students’ proficiency level between University of Tehran and the other three universities and in teaching literary texts to improve the listening skill and this, in turn, is not consistent with the goals of Ministry of Sciences and Research.

The purpose of this research is to investigate the level of advanced information literacy in Arabic language and literature students of Payam Noor University. The type of research is applied in terms of purpose and descriptive survey based on the method. The statistical population of this research is all Arabic language and literature students of Payam Noor University. Based on the table of Karjesi and Morgan, 124 people were selected as the sample size out of 191 people in the statistical population. Data collection was done using a questionnaire titled "Measuring the level of advanced information literacy of Arabic language and literature students". The results of this research showed that the level of advanced information literacy of these students is low and below average. There is a significant relationship between only three of the seven research hypotheses, that is, between language skills in Arabic, scientific productions, and the amount of Internet use with the level of advanced information literacy of students. Keywords: advanced information literacy, Arabic language and literature, students, Payam Noor University.

In the contemporary world, entrepreneurship in various scientific fields has witnessed considerable growth. Entrepreneurship and commercialization, as the fundamental and ultimate goal in every branch of science, guarantee the survival of that domain and orientation, offering transformation and dynamism to the target community. Entrepreneurship in the field of nature therapy and health care, for the discipline of Arabic language and literature, based on attention to its unknown, and perhaps sometimes overlooked and neglected aspects, is one of the pivotal and precise points that, contrary to the general public's perception of it being limited to certain specific occupations and institutions, can define new and novel paths, routes, and horizons that others may have overlooked or indifferently passed by. However, this does not imply an absolute solution to problems but rather naturally entails obstacles and challenges. The present research, employing a descriptive-analytical method and drawing upon library resources, investigates the pathology of entrepreneurship in nature therapy for graduates of Arabic language and literature. The research findings indicate that purposeful planning with awareness of capacities and limitations, reforming, simplifying, and adapting the rules for employing competent and knowledgeable human resources who, in addition to language proficiency, are familiar with the cultural and social customs of other nations, as well as translating sources in the health care domain as an essential need for health tourists. Organizing educational and skill-building workshops to raise awareness and cultivate a culture of entrepreneurship, and forming.
Collaborative teams are among the solutions that should be implemented wisely and scholarly with the consultation and cooperation of experts and specialists.