time

This article seeks to examine aspect and coercion at the predicate level and within the three syntactic layers of nucleus, core, and clause in Kurdish. Utilizing Role and Reference Grammar as the framework, the study identifies lexical aspects with inherent aspectual features at predicate level. Predicates are categorized into five types: activity, accomplishment, achievement, semelfactive, and state, based on their lexical characteristics. The other layers mainly host derivative aspects and aspectual operators. In the Kurdish language, the nucleus layer hosts three imperfective operators and one perfect operator, each of which modifies the aspectual features of the five mentioned event types. At this level, each predicate with its own lexical aspect undergoes aspect shifting due to its combination with one of these operators. All kinds of aspect shifting are triggered due to the semantic dimensions of the aspectual operators at the nucleus level. Also, the findings show that at the core level, predicates may undergo coercion when combined with adverbial items or internal arguments that have special referential characteristics; the derivative predicates (such as active accomplishments) appear at this level. This study shows that the temporal operator at the clause level also has a significant impact on the eventual structure of predicates, and the verbs at the clause level affected by the time operator may undergo coercion. All kinds of aspect shifting at this level are aimed at harmonizing the eventual structure of the verbs with the semantic dimensions of the time operator.

As an emerging area in literary criticism, the study of narrative time has attracted narratologists’s attention since the 20th century. One of the figures focusing on the analysis of time in narrative is Gerard Genet, who believes that the time of story and narration are not parallel but different, due to three reasons; order or chronological sequence, duration or temporal continuity, and frequency or repetition. The Translation of Tārīkh-e Yamīnī is one of the old texts in the field of historiography, which chronicles the events of Samanid and Ghaznavid eras. As it is written in the form of successive narrative fragments, with the author employing various techniques of temporal manipulation, it can be analyzed in terms of narrative time. This study examined the use of time through an inductive reasoning approach, focusing on order, duration and frequency. The result demonstrates that, although this work falls into the category of realistic and historical writings, the author has skillfully employed various narrative time techniques. Its refined prose style ensures that prolonged descriptions remain engaging rather than tedious. Moreover, the author’s seamless blending of historiography and realism is evident.

This article explores the narrative analysis of Iranian folklore stories using modern narratology theories. The primary objective of this study is to examine the narrative structures, time, viewpoint, characters, and other key concepts in these stories to gain a deeper understanding of their structural and semantic characteristics. For this purpose, prominent narratological theories by Gérard Genette, Tzvetan Todorov, Roland Barthes, and Mikhail Bakhtin are employed. The findings show that Iranian folklore stories have complex and non-linear temporal structures that operate differently from linear narratives through techniques like flashbacks and foreshadowing. Additionally, changes in the focalization in these stories highlight the multiplicity of viewpoints and the social and cultural complexities. Characters in these stories typically have fixed and defined roles, often in contrast to antagonists and various obstacles that drive the story forward. Content analysis reveals that these stories, beyond conveying moral and social messages, particularly in areas like loyalty, courage, and justice, serve as tools for education and the transmission of cultural values. Finally, the article suggests that future research should compare Iranian folklore narratives with those of other cultures and place more emphasis on the analysis of negative characters within these stories.

Semiotics refers to the conditions of receiving and producing meaning in narrative discursive regimes. In the field of narrative, we can mention Greimas and Landowski, two researchers of the Paris School, who have classified various types of narrative and its discourses into four categories: Action, Interaction, Accommodation, and Fusion. “Time” is one of the elements of narrative which plays an important role in the semantic chains of the narrative systems. It appears in the action systems on the basis of physical and temporal conventions, and in the modern narrative systems, it appears as sensible/stative times, such as ecstasy, circular, etc. In this article, by examining the framework of semiotics on the subject of narrative discourse and its various types, and also relying on each of the narrative models and their associated times, we answer the following questions: How do the dominant systems in a literary-dramatic work change, and how do these transformations of discourse systems lead to changes in the types of time in the narrative. According to the Discursive semiotic approach, the main issue is how the narrative systems and their times are able to change and enter the domains of each other. The main purpose of this article is to investigate the various types of narrative systems in the Semio-Semantics discourse and their transfer to each other, and consequently, the types of times that have a narrative function in these regimes. To achieve this goal, the focus is on the narrative in the play Afrā by Bahram Beyzai.

The present article is devised on the basis of a descriptive-analytical procedure and is based on the theory of Genette, with the aim of identifying the types of time lapses in the narrative and the cause for their use in the novel; “Game Rules.” Furthermore, it is to examine different forms of acceleration and frequency and their impact on the process and attractiveness of the aforementioned novel. The content of the novel is the rule of the psychoanalytical and philosophical game. Zonouzi has set up a well-considered structure for better transmission of this content. In the concept of order, the findings indicate that a high percentage of the text has anachronism of lapse in past time. By objective correlative, the narrator breaks the timeline and expresses his mistakes in past. These past tendencies have created suspense of the work. The narrator's internal monologue and expression of ideologies have created negative momentum; but considering that Zonouzi's goal is to deal with the character's story, its acceleration is completely appropriate and natural. The highest frequencies are dedicated to the repeated ones. By doing this, he has caused a better transfer of confusion, psychosis and narrator's complexes and recounts the effect of those events on the narrator's psyche. In this work, there is, not only no inconsistency among the components of Genette’s theory, but also an effective connection and interaction among the components. The techniques used in the narration of this work are appropriate, and the structural study of this novel has led to the understanding of its complexities.

Islamic Mysticism, or Sufism, is a systematic movement comprised of numerous interconnected elements. Elements are connected both to themselves and to the whole system. One of the most important, and controversial components of this system is Sama’, a form of didactic music performed Sufis, which is used as an effective tool for purifying the heart and bringing about a change in the state and tenderness of the heart, and in turn manifests itself in the form of Ecstasy (Wajd). This Ecstasy is the foundation for understanding the illuminative nature of existence. Sufis ' attention to Sama’ causes a evariety of mystical concepts related to the ecstatic states of the dancer and the possessor (Wajid) to revolve around it. Terms and concepts such as Presence, Ecstasy, Existence, Time, Intoxication, Expansion, Ecstatic Rapture, and similar themes are born out of Sama’. In this library research, a qualitative and analytical approach has been taken to examine this broad spectrum to some extent. The authors’ aim has been to reveal some of the effects of Sama’ on the Sufi system. The results show that despite verbal disputes, sometimes violent opposition from dissenters of Sufis, Sama’ continued to exist among Sufis and was an important means for transforming the Seeker' and preparing them for achieving an illuminative worldview.

 From ancient times, old stories have drawn the attention of poets and writers from one hand, and the critics and readers, on the other hand. The elements such as character, incident, point of view, narrative, tension, space and so on make this genre distinct from other literary works. Therefore, the analysis of the time and place elements of ancient stories are of paramount importance. The method of the present study is descriptive analytical method. Every story has benefited from a Known or unknown various elements of time and place according to the context, history and culture. By reading any story, the reader is referred to a known or unknown historical and geographical situation.

 The scene (time and place) is the key element being explored in this study. This research is a theoretical study that has been carried out using the library method. Its scope and statistical subjects include four ancient works of fiction namely Totininameh, Darabnameh, Samak Ayyar and Amir Arslan. The research method is descriptive-analytical.

 Although some critics consider temporal and spatial aspects general and vague, nobody can deny the presence of the elements of time and place. But the existence of multiple elements and situations in these stories cannot be denied. Using various calendar and mythological times is one of the common features of these works. From a spatial point of view, although we face a general and vague view. But the geographical scope of these stories is very diverse and includes many regions in the ancient world.

 The results of the research show that all of the stories have time and place. There is no story existing without these elements. Such elements give the stories historical, national, cultural and contextual concepts. But mostly they lack historical and geographical identity. These two elements; however, are general and vague in certain situations. They also show the variety of the time and the place in stories. They do not have an obvious role in advancing the story. From the point of view of time, these works are oriented towards the past and linear. There are many different locations in these works. Like the countries, cities and natural environments where fictional events have taken place.

According to Naser Khosrow’s cosmological thought, the whole nature and its six forces (hyle, form, time, place, motion, and stillness) have a special position in the levels of existence as well as in the integration of the spiritual and physical worlds. The whole nature is a subtle essence through which the movement of the physical world and pre-eminence on the hyle world is attainable. It is also the preserver of the types and forms. The physical world is the result of intermingling the form with the hyle as a creating, discrete, sensible, and passive essence. Time is another force for actualizing the powers of beings. Place is also a boundary that includes objects and bodies. Movement, in the absolute sense of change, occurs on the object. The generation and decay, excess and deficiency, and change and metamorphosis which are the most important types of movement, appear in quantitative and qualitative essence. The analysis of Nasser Khosrow’s ideas on the whole nature and its forces, which he dealt with mostly in his prose works and less in his pems, provides the basis for a better understanding of his view on the creation of the world. The results shodwe that the origin of many of Nasser Khosrow’s beliefs in this regard can be traced back to the thoughts of Greek philosophers, especially Aristotle and to the thoughts of Ismaili thinkers.

 One of the common elements between literature and cinema is the subject of time, for which two characteristic features are observed; quantitative time, which is objective and qualitative time, which has a mental existence. Henri Bergson based his philosophical views of the concept of time on subjective consciousness. Later, Gilles Deleuze extended Bergson's view of time to cinema. The current research, a descriptive-comparative study, aims to investigate the concept of qualitative time based on the opinions of Henri Bergson and Gilles Deleuze in Sadeq Hedayat’s novel, The Blind Owl (Būff Cūr)  and its film adaptation, directed by Raứl Ruiz. According to this research, despite the difference in the written and visual media of literature and cinema, the concept of quality time is discerned as a common element in both works. To this end, the author and filmmaker have used a variety of internal time techniques, including diurnal cycles, intuition, reminiscences, time interferences, and time crystal components. Ruiz's film is a free adaptation, and its main plot and subplot are different from the novel. However, regarding the concept of time and the characteristics of mental time, it is consistent with Hedayat's effect. Among the findings of the present research, in addition to revealing the differences and similarities between the novel and the film from the perspective of qualitative time, it is possible to point out the common elements that can be adapted in literature and cinema based on the concept of time.

This article is the result of Mahmoud Dowlatabadi's collaboration with us as a literary researcher about The past of old people. The main topic is the investigation of time’s poetic in relation to space.It rarely happens that an article criticizing a work is written with the participation of the author of the same work. If the reader of this novel is familiar with Dowlatabadi's life, he will easily understand that his book is an autofiction. The difference between autofiction and autobiography is that the author's imagination in the first type, compared to the second, more easily affects the process of defining the narrator's life. According to Freud, by using his phantasmagoric activity, a person recreates the events of his life and his relatives and in this way, he represents a reality that has been transformed. In many autobiographies, the author assumes childhood as the starting point of his story, then, he narrates events that bring him to adulthood, sometimes to old age. But in The past of old people, unlike autobiographical writing, the author refers to the early death of the main character's grandfather to show the starting point of the story. In other words, the beginning of this autofiction is the story of an unexpected death, the consequences of which will affect the lives of the descendants of the main character. The fact that the author chose death as the starting point of the story causes the entire poetic of novel changed and childhood is mixed with death. At the same time, to show this transformation and the threat of death, the author uses elements that make the novel distance itself from the realistic time and turn into autofiction. Identifying and analyzing these elements is the main foundation of our research. Consulting with Dowlatabadi and including his opinions in this article has created a good opportunity to improve the content of our research, and he can discover his work with hidden effects

The time of narrative discourse is multidimensional and abnormal, creating scattered images to highlight the fictional concept. An idea refers to a dominant belief that results from repeating an image. The novel "Sleeping in the Cherry Field" by Iraqi writer Azhar Jerjis, nominated for the Arabic Booker Prize in 2020, is an example of exile literary works. Its motif is the concept of the lack of individual identity in the shadow of homeland security, rooted in the idea of "desire for immortality". This current research is a qualitative and descriptive-analytical study based on library sources. It aims to discover the basis of the formation of the idea in "Sleeping in the Cherry Field", explain the relationship between time and personality traits, and determine the emotions emanating from the idea of immortality based on Gerard Genette's theory of narrative discourse in three themes: order, duration, and frequency. The application of this theory is necessary to prove the idea of narration as it highlights characteristics of the hero's character and emotions. The findings reveal that narrative structure as a labyrinth and fluid flow of mind create anachronisms in narrative discourse order. Its duration is based on dialogue, summarization, omission, and descriptive pause, while types of frequency including single, repeated, and repeating stories are used to highlight "desire for immortality". One result is a contrast between present and past as a basis for immortality. The protagonist's isolation in time creates emotions such as fear, hope, confusion, and disappointment.

Rimmon Kenan, in her book ‘The Art of Narrative Expression’ has introduced a theoretical-applied framework for analyzing different types of narratives from the point of view of structural narratologists. The present research has analyzed this framework, taking into account the two elements of time and characterization, in the collection of stories of ‘Somewhere Else’ by Goli Taraghi. The purpose is to use the descriptive-analytic method to analyze the capabilities of the structural-applied model of narratology in time components, including temporal elements, spatial components, and characterization from the book ‘The Art of Narrative Expression’ in rereading the two stories ‘Unfinished Game’ and ‘Somewhere Else’. The findings demonstrated that in the two components of time and characterization, in ‘Unfinished Game’, the occurrence of travel with retrospective anachronism, at the level of the story, caused the main character's reopening of the mental complexes, which had influenced his actions for years. In the characterization of the story ‘Somewhere Else’, the main character of the story has reached a spiritual transformation in terms of self-knowledge and connection with his spiritual interests. As a result, the reader is convinced and goes along with the story which is currently sought by the application of cognitive narratology in the field of postclassical narratology. 

In love mysticism, the issue of encountering the systems of signs and the act of signifying in a special way has led to the representation and organization of the macro-sign of the world unity or the state of presence. That is the way that the referential and arbitrary function of language turns to be absent, and the signs acquire symbolic functions and deeper layers of meaning. The signifying aspects of allegories and metaphors reconstructing the atmosphere of presence in the world before the annihilation dates back to the pre-language stage. Based on this, the experience of presence in line with the experiencer's lived time, and the time split in the place dimension with a different structure and passing from an active and physical place comes out in atmosphere in the field of intuitive experience in a different surface structure, and passing over an actional and physical place. Among the mystic writings, Rumi’s sonnets, from semiotics’ perspective, are allegories and metaphors reconstructing presence atmosphere or diverse and multi-layered unity. The main question in this article is that how the artistic reconstruction of the author-narrator of Shams-e Tabrizi’s sonnets in representing the atmosphere of presence existent in the lingual-narrative codes of the text is organized? The research methodology is descriptive-analytical, and properly in line with the epistemology that governs the text. The result demonstrates that, through narrating based on the presence, the author-narrator of Shams-e Tabrizi’s sonnets has utilized each of the allegories and micro-macro metaphors with signifiers of biological and epistemological domains so as to explain the nature of the mysterious, ambiguous, opaque, devouring, indeterminate, inseparable, infinite and extended atmosphere of the unity world.

Investigating the effects of the element of time in Hariri officials based on the structures of Gerard Genet's narrative discourse theory Time is not the only influential element in the logic of narrative. But it has a fundamental role in narration. Time in narratology is examined based on the processes of order, narrative continuity and repetition or frequency, and Gerard Genet is one of the greatest theorists in the field of time in narrative discourse who has fully addressed these aspects. The approach of this research is to examine the element of time in Hariri officials and its effect on the narrative discourse of officials based on Gerard Genet's critical method. This analysis examined the relationship between story time and discourse time to conclude that most narrations are time-lapse and time-lapse is more of a retrospective type and they account for about "10.33%" and sometimes story time exceeds the discourse time and its application is about "0.84%". The speed of the narrations was evaluated based on the three modes of "acceleration, deceleration and constant acceleration" and It has been shown that constant acceleration has the highest rate of application in Hariri authorities with "43.45%". And then because of using of summary and ellipsis, about “12.44%” of Hariri authorities move forward with an acceleration. And the reason for the deceleration of the authorities is the detailed and consecutive descriptions throughout the narrations, which account for "18.14%" and the repetition of events does not move in one direction and different types of frequencies are used to express the events that some of which are specific to Hariri style. The iterative frequency of "8.04%" and the singular frequency "3.58%" have the most applications respectively, and the similarity frequency of "0.42%" and multiple frequency "1.05%" and repetitive frequency "1.68%" have the lowest respectively.

Time is one of the basic issues in thematic criticism, and among the critics of this field, Georges Poulet pays more attention to the components of time and place. The main focus of Poole's criticism is to explore and investigate how to communicate with the outside world, which is done by emphasizing the components of time and place.Bidel Dehlavi's emphasis on "time" and "becoming" and its epistemological aspects in his works are one of the main components of his thought.Biddle creates a surrealistic atmosphere in his lyrical poems through symbols, images and metaphors and presents his different perception of time which is in accordance with his mystical worldview. This research aims to show the philosophical and mystical foundations of Biddle's understanding of time, that is, the idea of the unity of existence and Indian wisdom, while drawing the conceptual correlates of time and its image network.The present article examines the concepts and images related to the category of time in Bidel Dehlavi's poems with a descriptive-analytical method, and with a thematic criticism approach based on the centrality of thoughts Puleh, Bidel's perception of the present, past and future is examined in the mirror of repeated images. The result of this research is that Bidel values meditation, revelation, reflection and intuition according to the teachings of Indian wisdom and Islamic mysticism, and the high frequency of words such asmoment and other similar compoundsIt shows Biddle's attention to the category of time.

Mehdi Azaryazdi is among the most influential authors in the field of children's and adolescents’ literature and one of the pioneers in the field of rewriting and recreating old Persian tales. He translated stories from ancient works such as Qabus-Nameh, Marzban-Nameh, Sindbad-Nameh, Kalileh and Damneh, Bustan, Golestan, and especially Mathnavi, into the contemporary language, and in this way, laid the ground to accurately transfer human concepts to the today's generation. He rewrote and recreated these works based on the principle that every child's literary work inevitably reveals a view about childhood and every author has a child created by his own mind (Khosrownejad, 2010: 26).This research aimed to investigate three important rewritten stories from Mathnavi, i.e., the story of the merchant and the parrot, the disagreement over the qualities and the shape of the elephant, and the condemning by Moses -may peace be upon him- of the shepherd's devotional prayer, using the documentary study method and based on Genette's theory of narrative temporality. These stories are presented in the book Good Stories for Good Children under the titles of "The Merchant and the Parrot", "The Elephant in the Dark", and "Moses and the Shepherd".

Cognitive semantics is a branch of cognitive linguistics which suggests that there are a number of cognitive mechanisms in the minds of humans including image schemas, conceptual metaphors, and conceptual metonymies through which meanings are created. Image schemas are the basic concepts like movement, container and force experienced by human beings from the early days of life and formed in their minds. One of the main claims of cognitive semantics is that abstract thinking roots in human experiences. Conceptual metaphor theory (CMT), first proposed in Lakoff and Johnson (1980), believes that the abstract concepts like life are better evoked by concrete and tangible concepts like journey. The former is called a target domain, and the latter is a source domain. There are lots of systematic mappings between these domains. The theory believes that the ubiquity of the systematic mappings between sources and target domains is a proof that our thinking is mostly metaphorical. The important dimension of image schemas is that they provide concrete experiential bases for the construction of some conceptual metaphors. Moreover, conceptual metonymies are mechanisms in which a kind of mental access is provided between two relevant and adjacent entities which are in the same idealized cognitive model (ICM).Time is one of the most important as well as complex abstract concepts that has attracted the attention of many thinkers throughout the history. In both formal and cognitive linguistics, this issue has been studied in literary texts, primarily in narrative texts. The novel Yusef Tadres' Stories (Hikayat Yusef Tadres), winning the Najib Mahfouz Prize (2016), is one of the famous works of Adel Esmat, the Egyptian famous novelist. This story is narrated by Yusef Tadres, the main character of the novel. He is an artist, invoked by many idiosyncratic thoughts, cognitively developed through the passage of time by the aid of his paintings. This research attempts to shed light on the cognitive system of time representation in the story and, at the same time, its conceptualization in the mind of the ego-narrator, according to the cognitive semantics theory. To analyze the temporal elements of this narrative, the researchers tried to use the ideas of Lakoff and Johnson (1980) and Johnson (1987) as the bases for the identification, categorization and explanation of all the temporal elements in the story. So, all the metaphorical expressions denoting the time concept were extracted from the text. Moreover, the image schemas which represent time elements were identified and recorded. There are some time metonymies in the text that construct the concept of time. These elements were identified and explained in the process of argumentation. The extracted data were used for the analysis of the time representation quality in the text and its conceptualization. The results show that the ego-narrator has used the three mechanisms of image schemas, conceptual metaphors and metonymies. Firstly, since there is a general correlation between time and place concepts, that is, TIME is universally conceptualized as PLACE/SPACE, the text provides such a mapping with the preposition "fi" (in) for the temporal elements. This constructs a kind of spatial identity for the non-spatial elements of time, both through a fundamental image schema of CONTAINER and the metaphors of time like time as SPACE or time as a PATH THAT HUMANS PASSED. Another issue is the conceptualization of time as an OBJECT, evoked by special expressions like small (Saghir), heavy (Thaghil) and pronominal elements like that (Zaleka/Telka). The PATH schema is used in the conceptualization of time. In some cases, time is evoked as a volitional movement in the path, as if TIME IS AN ANIMAL/HUMAN. In these cases time is as a moving object, and humans are static observers. In the conceptual metonymy found here, time is a CONTAINER in which all the events of the story are located and there is a metonymic relation of THE PROPERITIES OF EVENTS FOR EVENTS, as well as THE WHOLE FOR PART in which, for example, a whole day is used for a part of it. This study shows that the novelist conceptualized time as SPACE, PATH, OBJECT, as well as, ANIMATE CREATURE to achieve narratological purposes such as description of the setting of the story, characterizations, and thematic descriptions. At the same time, the conceptual metonymies like THE TIME OF THE EVENT FOR THE EVENT and THE WHOLE TIME FOR PART OF IT are observed and aligned with other conceptualizations. The results suggest that the cognitive semantics theory, among other theories, is potentially capable of analyzing the narrative concepts, conceptualizations and the details of semantic constructions in the story, which can shed light on the subjectivity of the narrator.

Romanticism, one of the most complex and widespread literary schools, emerged as a groundbreaking phenomenon in the late eighteenth-century. The school developed in an era of outstanding scientific, social and political changes in Europe. In the same vein, Iranian constitutional movement introduced Romanticism as a novel intellectual approach in Persian literature. Although Simin Behbahani cannot be regarded as a follower of this literary school, many of her poetic imageries enjoy attributes associated with imagery employed in Romantic poetry. Her poems are similarly replete with imagery which express the poet’s attitude and vision and outstandingly convey her emotions.This article takes a descriptive-analytical approach to Simin Behbahani’s poetry in her three outstanding collection of poems: A case of A Line from Speed and Fire, Arzhan Plain, and A Window of Freedom. The article is an endeavor to study some attributes of romanticism in Simin’s poetry as transformation of nature, individualism, ambiguity in imageries, dynamics of language and transcendence of the images, and melancholy.Ambiguous combinations and imageries, implied meaning and expressions of feelings, transcendence of nature, individual and social melancholy, and personalization of various symbols are amongst attributes which reveal Simin’s poetry to bear influences of romanticism.The findings yield significant implications on Simin Behbahani’s poetry with regards to Persian modifications introduced to romanticism which most visibly concentrate on transcendence of nature and individualism.

The present study aims at investigating and examining the concept of TIME in quatrains (Rubaiyat) of Khayyam through Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) to illustrate the poet's attitude(s) towards this important concept and examine his philosophy regarding it. Drawing on methods presented by Pragglejaz Group and Steen, all quatrains including conceptual metaphors of TIME were extracted and probed through CMT to answer the following questions. Regarding the conceptualization of TIME in Rubaiyat of Khayyam, what is/are the main attitude(s) of Khayyam towards the concept of TIME? Is there any conceptual relationship between conceptual metaphors of TIME in the quatrains? The results of the research show that the concept of TIME in the quatrains has been differently conceptualized but there is a degree of consistency among these conceptualizations. In addition, this consistency can indicate that most of these quatrains display a single thought, attitude, and philosophy which may be that of Khayyam.