فلسفه

Science and culture are among the issues that have always been interconnected, with various theorists seeking to uncover the nature of their relationship. According to Islamic philosophy, science is introduced as the foundation and basis of the culture and civilization of human societies. To evaluate that civilization, one must examine its scientific foundations; therefore, if the scientific foundations of a culture and civilization are destroyed or destabilized, the defensibility of its slogans and ideals is undermined, allowing for distortion to enter its domain. One of the most significant factors in the destabilization of the structure of science is the degradation of its issuance from a metaphysical position to a realm governed by language and social phenomena. This degradation, which results in the introduction of relativity into the structure of science, also destabilizes the cultural norms derived from that science, rendering them outdated. Modern thought journalism is one of the most important tools that, by reducing sciences to superficial and trivial literature, despite aligning with societal masses, targets the scientific roots of civilizations. The contemporary cyber model of this type of journalism has a greater impact on the degradation of science and destruction of civilizational foundations due to its specific characteristics such as content construction, context-dependence and temporality, individualism dominance, reliance on multimedia, language centrality, and audience-centricity compared to previous models. In our country, active thought journalists initially aim to discredit the ideological foundations embedded in cultural elements and norms and ultimately indirectly target the core ideology of Islam and the Revolution. This article attempts to elucidate this process of destruction through an ethnographic approach to cyberspace.

The distinguishing feature of Paul Radin's research approach with other ethnologists is the observance of the principle of neutrality as much as possible and the self-conscious removal of the researcher from his historical background in order to achieve the originality of the research on primitive peoples. During his studies and experiences, Radin came to the general opinion that the history, individuality and psychological and social facts of these peoples should be taken into account by ethnologists and he found the broad commonalities of the perceptual nature of primitive and progressive societies. Not only did he not consider all primitive people to have a pre-rational and low mind, but he also stated that in all societies, whether primitive or advanced, there are people with the essence of philosophizing and thinking, who are able to meet their needs and their material or spiritual needs benefit from their inner creativity and lead the common and practical people of the society to accept and believe in these capabilities. In Paul Radin's ethnological research, the primitive people of a society composed of practical and thoughtful people are introduced with different levels of independence of individual truth to attraction to social realities. Therefore, Radin removes himself from expressing and developing specific theories to describe the nature of primitive societies, and despite his eloquent attempts to identify them by focusing on their history and individuality and using analytical psychology, he always leaves open the parentheses of his explanations.

The book Logic and Theology, published by Brill, contains articles in German, English, and French on the study of medieval Islamic and Western scholarship in the fields of logic and theology. Each article in this book is authored by an expert in the respective subject. The present article, titled “Taftāzānī and Philosophy” is a translation of Wilferd Madelung's original German text. In this article, Madelung highlights an aspect of Taftāzānī’s scholarly character that has either been overlooked or given less attention in the shadow of figures such as al-Fārābī, Avicenna, and Mullā Sadrā—namely, the philosophical dimension of Taftāzānī’s thought and works. Madelung, through careful research and an emphasis on Taftāzānī’s Sharḥ al-Maqāṣid, brings to light the philosophical elements present in Taftāzānī’s writings and examines the attribution or misattribution of certain works to him. In this way, Madelung provides both a scientifically rich article and a methodological guide for research in this particular area.

Since the second half of the 20th century, women have become one of the most controversial topics in political philosophy. Some thinkers of women's studies, such as Susan Muller Okin and Carol Pattman, showed in their research that political philosophy was originally male, and therefore, as soon as it is placed against women as equals, it collapses so much that there is nothing to use. It does not remain. Therefore, two fundamental questions are raised at the same time: First, what should women's studies do to raise its philosophical issues? And second, what to do with the great tradition of political philosophy? So far, three answers have been given to these two questions: escaping from philosophy, establishing feminist political philosophy, and de-gendering political philosophy. But as we will show, these answers are ultimately not convincing. On the other hand, in this article, we have put forward the idea of neutral political philosophy, which tries to find a way to preserve the great tradition of political philosophy with the inferential analytical method that governs philosophical debates, and that the discussion of women in terms of existence Cognitive find the possibility of being present and recognized.

Farabi's philosophy, in the most accurate meaning, is a problem-oriented and worldly philosophy. This statement is against the claim that Farabi's philosophy is completely abstract and unrelated to the concrete issues of his life, or even if he believes in such a connection, the proposed philosophical model is considered to be fundamentally unrealizable in this world and that philosophy in many aspects i.e. anthropology, politics, ethics, etc., is considered to be the highest part of a person's soul. In contrast to this claim, which has many supporters, this article claims that not only Farabi's philosophy is basically born from the concrete political, religious, cultural and social contexts of his lifetime, but his solution to the problems of the time, unlike other one-sided solutions, is based on the distinct but related ideal-real duality. According to the latter aspect, Farabi tried to bring together the ancient tradition and the contemporary requirements and to help the intellectuals of the world solve the problems of the Islamic society of his time. In this article, while analyzing these fields including Farabi's response to the issues and crises of the time, it tries to propose this way as a model for philosophical thinking and cultural policy-making, which recognizes the two real and ideal situations at the same time.

Beauty and aesthetics have a thought-provoking course of evolution and development in the history of the world, in such a way that the known cultures before written history such as China, Egypt, Iran, Africa and Europe considered its examples to be human characters, behaviors and virtues, and on the other hand, beauty was constructions, functions, skills, creatures and natural objects; Animals, trees and rock shapes were described. But the history of beauty in the West is full of ups and downs, and from the ancient Greeks, who considered beauty to be the product of the artist's thinking, to Augustine, the western philosopher in the Middle Ages, who described beauty from the innovative doctrine of "Afaza" of absolute existence, the theory of beauty in The aesthetics of the Middle Ages, in a relatively artificial way, served as a substitute for the useful aesthetic interests and the origin of the work.In 1790, the important book of Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher and a leading figure in the modern philosophy of the 18th century, called Critique of the Power of Judgment, was published, which is known as one of the most important sources of aesthetics today. In the pre-critical period of his thinking, he wrote a small treatise entitled Considerations on the Beautiful and the Noble (1764), in which he mainly focused on social and anthropological reflections. Kant denied the principles of taste and believed that the judgments we issue about beauty are only based on pleasure and are completely subjective and only work for empirical studies (anthropology or history). Kant made extensive changes in the subject of aesthetics and made it It became a theory related to art and beauty. (Masika, 2011: 3) In Kant's criticism, sense is lower than knowledge and understanding, and taste is not based on moral foundation, and the judgment of the beauty of something is a judgment of taste, and taste is the power of judgment. knows about beauty. Until the end of the 19th century, as a result of Kant's theories, in Western culture and studies, art and works of art were examples of aesthetics, and the understanding of beauty also depended on the values ​​with the sensory experience of objects or events. At the end of the century, with the spread of the study of anthropology of art, the topics of aesthetics were also raised at the same time, and a new perspective appeared in the topics of aesthetics. Kant's aesthetic theory was systematic and comprehensive, he related experience and judgments about natural beauty and art to the basic concepts of epistemology, metaphysics and ethics. The continuation of this legacy in aesthetics after him is clearly visible, the purpose of this thesis is to analyze the evolution of the philosophy of beauty to the anthropology of aesthetics, and the question is based on what historical developments have occurred in the thought and philosophy of beauty from the ancient period to the anthropology of aesthetics?

The research method of this study is analytical-descriptive with a qualitative approach centered on historical developments based on written sources.

The findings show that the most important developments in the 19th century of anthropology are related to the two attitudes of evolutionism and diffusion (expansion) in the years 1930-1880, so that the evolutionism approach focuses on the growth of the (intrinsic) aesthetic power in humans, and its growth or lack thereof depends on hierarchical principles. And it is a stage, and diffusionism emphasizes on the expansion of the components of beauty in different societies, until with the emergence of aesthetic anthropology in the contemporary era, more attention was paid to the components of native beauty and the creative society in researches, and beauty was criticized from the perspective of the creative society

In the critical review of the book “Ethics of Management” written by Tomas Klikavar (2010), the present article has paid attention to the general approach of the author, the conceptual tools used, and the way of reasoning. According to the author, management, especially business management, due to the importance it attaches to the survival of the organization, has placed its fundamental principle on increasing benefit and earning profit, therefore, morality is not its fundamental issue, and it can even commit immorality in some cases, according to the necessity of tendencies and dispositions . As a theoretician of management ethics, from a historical point of view, the author has tried to show that business management has always been associated with unethical experiences, an experience that has continued until the present day as a kind of modern slavery. He believes that management ethics as an inter-discipline, which is considered a branch of management knowledge in terms of its subject, must be more intertwined with philosophy in practice. Finally, although the author has been able to show the inherent contradiction of management, especially business management, with ethics and provide a solution based on this, the fact that the author has succeeded in presenting a different theory in the field of “management ethics” is a matter of doubt and reflection.

The question of what and how voluntary action is one of the important topics of the philosophy of action. Among all the Islamic thinkers, Allameh Tabataba'i has stood out from other wisdom and wisdom with his extensive and special opinions about the process of human activity. This article has examined his point of view on this issue from three angles; What is optional verb and its relationship with volitional verb, division and classification of verbs and bases of issuing verbs.The present article, which has been carried out using the library method and the fundamental analysis of themes, makes it clear that Allameh Tabatabaei defines the optional verb with effective knowledge and will, and with this criterion, he considers the verbs with intent, with premeditation, and with intent as different categories of optional verbs, all of which They are common in acknowledging necessity, passion and will. Allameh's distinguishing point in the discussion about the principles of the formation of action is that, firstly, he considers the science that is the origin of action to be the knowledge of knowledge, which is based on the recognition of perfection. And thirdly, he did not consider science as the true origin of actions, but considered it as a function of the ego and sensual attention of man, and considers science as the only necessary and complementary condition for issuing action.

The book "Intellectuals and Politics" by Mark L. deals with the relationship between politics and intellectuals. More than anything, this book claims that in the subside era of grand metanarrative, enlightenment has ended, and intellectuals cannot be pioneers in changes such as in the past. Layla claims that the leading causes of the rise of totalitarian regimes, ruinous wars in the west, and philosophy politicization is the intellectuals' betrayal. Intellectuals who had great aspirations, but did not reach the desired results. They were mostly involved in hidden aspects of their life, which influenced their thinking and led to the combination of philosophy and practical politics. Thinkers whom Layla accuses are Heidegger, Arendt, Kojève, Benjamin, Foucault, and Derrida. The strength of the book is contextualism, and the weakness is the ethical critique of thinkers rather than a critique of their works.

Cyberspace, despite its emergence, has brought about serious changes in Iranian society, and this has led Muslim thinkers to pay more serious attention to its nature. Philosophical reflection on cyberspace is one of the approaches that has recently been considered by thinkers and is a kind of complement and even the basis of scientific reflection on cyberspace in order to be able to explain, predict and prescribe based on which. Therefore, cyberspace policy-making in Iran desperately needs philosophical attention and consequently the distinction and explanation of the autonomous philosophical approach. As in the study of cyberspace, we are faced with dimensions such as information and communication technology, cybernetics, artificial intelligence, computing, etc. In the same way, in philosophical reflection on cyberspace, these dimensions must be addressed. The work that has been considered in the book "Philosophy of Cyberspace" and in this article, we have reviewed and evaluated the book in order to do this important thing.

"Must" and "Is" and the relationship between them has always been the main subject in traditional and even modern philosophies. In the last century, this subject has gone from philosophy to sociology of science and has researched the collective and scientific life of researchers and scientists as a concrete subject. In these reflections, contrary to the philosophical view which mainly seeks the independence and purity of science from non−science and considers the idea of pure science in the world of ideas or in the mind’s scientists or in the realm of immutable and fix "entities", this eternal and fixed entities have given way to temporal, spatial, and social entities, and thus a different kind of relationship has emerged; A relationship that has led to different Must. This has led to a major shift in methodological considerations and philosophical and sociological analyzes of research topics, including methodology of science and standard epistemology. In this article, after mentioning a brief history of the relationship between these two categories in traditional philosophy, we try to point out the semantic changes and methods that have occurred in the relationship between them, especially in the sociology of science and knowledge in modern times.

Interactions between society, religion and philosophy have been important issues for thinkers. The main purpose of this article is a sociological view of Sadra's philosophy in understanding the principles of belief. Mulla Sadra, with his ontological principles and principles, creates the form of a society based on spiritual and epistemological horizons; Because man is related to the structures and structural elements of society on the horizon of existential dialectical interaction. Human factors and his actions lead the whole of society to perfection or decline. Society, like all other existential affairs of the world, contains a substantial movement and leads to perfection or degeneration. In this article, with analytical method, rational while analyzing the issue that according to Sadra, philosophy based on theoretical wisdom has a pivotal role in the process of understanding human beliefs, by examining and proving these principles based on ontological principles and its role in understanding society. Contemporary will pave the way for the attainment of knowledge and cognition in today's society and will help in the presentation of Islamic social theories.

One way to find out the truth of objects and phenomena is to "ask questions" and people ask questions to resolve their doubts, but this gap in the field of military training for several years has caused learners not to find answers to their questions. The present study was conducted with the aim of an analytical approach to the reasons for hierarchy and obedience in military training.

The research method is descriptive-analytical and it is of a qualitative content analysis type. The statistical population included 16 elites and veterans of the Armed Forces who were selected by snowball sampling method. Research data were collected using structured interviews including 17 questions on the reasons for hierarchy and obedience.

Based on the research findings and after analyzing the interviews and using different sources and texts, in the form of key content and main propositions, the reasons for each of these trainings was explained in detail. The philosophy and reasons for hierarchy and obedience in military trainings can be categorized in twelve classes, including coordination with Islamic standards, inferior and superior behavior, competency training, executive direction of commands and orders, maintaining the power and efficiency of the unit, the possibility of commanders' supervision, distinguishing the position and responsibility of individuals, the field of orderliness and order expectancy, accountability system and doing the duties, power axis and the fulcrum of forces and the bedrock of the growth and excellence of forces.

Knowing the reasons for military training not only does not damage its basis and authenticity, but explaining it makes it possible for students and learners to believe in it as a millennial human experience. In addition, the results include theoretical and practical achievements in the field of training and education of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran.

The present paper introduces and criticizes the book entitled "philosophical anthropology" authored by "Hans Dierkes". In this book, the author has selected texts containing educational perspectives on the subject matter of the discussion, which have been proposed mainly without any comprehensive analysis and deep systematization.After mentioning four levels of philosophical anthropology proposed by "Dierkes" and criticizing them, this paper talks about the importance of paying attention to the new approach called "dimensional anthropology", and in addition to investigating the anthropology classification in the book structure, it has referred to the proposed quadripartite model in the human exposure to self, nature, society, and God. In the following, the similarities and differences between the anthropological perspectives are explained using analytical-critical method and it paves the way for their philosophical criticism. Accordingly, the most important finding of this research is that most the anthropological perspectives have paid attention to one or more than one dimensions of human facets and have been magnified, and there is few perspectives in which one can achieve the analysis of the relation and interaction between all human forces, indicating the importance of paying attention to the philosophical and methodological foundations of "dimensional anthropology".  This book is very helpful with regard to opening scientific horizons and posing main anthropological questions, but presenting any definition of the realm and examples of philosophical anthropology depends on the explanation of the "subject" and "method" of such approach and no clear boundary can be found between the four levels of philosophical anthropology proposed by "Dierkes" without having an accurate perspective on its components.

Philosophy of mysticism is a branch of philosophy of philosophy and one of the topics of interest to researches of mysticism. In this field are proposed three theories of constructivism, philosophia perennis, and non-intentionality, People are counted like Stacey, James from the first theory processors, and Katz is one of the proposers of the second theory, and Foreman of third theory designers. In reviewing the book of The Single Experience  one of  the new works on philosophy of mysticism, we conclued that the author, despite much effort, did not mention the theoretical foundations of wisdom, while at the same time explaining the views of religions on the subject and sometimes making incorrect claims about them. For example, somewhere in the book is denying the existence, the unity of existence in the Jewish religion that is wrong. The book's lack of careful attention theories of constructivism and philosophia perennis that are directly related to this subject has diminished the validity of the book. Of course, addressing a single experience can also help to extending this topic and preparation of convergence between religions and their followers and be a step towards deepening religious beliefs.

Book of Philosophy, theology, and politics: a reading of Benedict Spinoza’s Tractatustheologico-politicus is intended to describe, analyze, and criticize the most important concepts contained in the Spinoza’s book by utilizing its precious resources and with an etymological look. Inner critique in this book outweighs the outer critique. Besides, many references and explanations about Spinoza’s philosophy, Bagley’s work has also become an admirable book among the commentaries or readings of the English-speaking world. Spinoza’s treatise is a book about theology and politics. However, Bagley holds that it is a book about theology and politics that is written by a philosopher. More precisely, it is treatise written by someone whose allegiance is to philosophy rather than either to theology or to politics. This paper makes an effort to introduce, with a descriptive-analytical look, the formal and content structure of the Bagley’s book, and then to discuss its strengths and weaknesses.

Nietzsche, as one of the most popular philosophers and elite thinkers that formed modern thought, has been studied from many dimensions. There are many books about him, and many scholars are still doing research on his life, works and thoughts. The plurality of the works and the differences in the representation of Nietzsche's image has led to doubt and confusion in the determination of Nietzsche's position and understanding of his thought. The present study aims at introducing and evaluating a major, recent and important work in Nietzsche field, called “The Oxford Handbook of Nietzsche”. This scientific and standard work has thirty-two essays from world renowned scholars. Essays have been organized in six discrete sections such as biography, historical relations, principal works and fundamental issues such as values, epistemology and metaphysics, and developments of will to power. These essays contain striking and precise points that can influence on our understanding of Nietzsche's philosophy and provide us with a broad knowledge of the main elements of his philosophy, such as superman, will to power and eternal recurrence. Therefore this paper, after an overview of the book and description of its general features, summarizes the content of each essay to arouse the audience’s interest for pursuing of a thorough study.