اراده

When an intelligent machine or an autonomous robot, as the ample examples of artificial intelligence, commits a crime, what first comes to mind is its criminal liability. Human criminal liability is based on the will and criminal intent and other conditions mentioned in the law, but the will and intent of artificial intelligence in committing a crime is not like the will and intent of humans. This research here, examines the concepts of criminal liability of artificial intelligence, and the existing approaches to artificial intelligence; it evaluates and criticizes two opposing philosophical approaches towards artificial phenomena, namely humanness and instrumentality, and various assumptions, and states the existing legal provisions of criminal liability intended for criminal humans. By analyzing the legal provisions that have been enacted for humans with self-will, it has reached the following approach as below, considering the new nature of artificial phenomena, the current laws are not responsible for criminal confrontation with artificial intelligence; Because regarding the ambiguity of existing laws toward concepts such as non-spiritual will, accepting the interpretation of these laws by an official authority, although it will remove the ambiguity, will cause the judicial system to be dumbfounded regarding criminal discussions in this area and will not solve the problem.

The ideas of Paramahansa Yogananda and Yehuda Berg are influenced by religious traditions concerning spirituality and life improvement. This paper explores how a comparative analysis of the relationship between intuitive perception and life improvement in their thought is possible and how robust such an interpretation is. Using a library-based study and an analytical-comparative method with a critical approach, we demonstrate that while both thinkers share common views—particularly regarding success, higher will, and intuition as foundational for improvement—significant differences exist in their ontological perspectives and spiritual practices. These differences create distinct dualities regarding the human position in the world and offer unique spiritual exercises for life enhancement. Therefore, their interpretations exhibit at least two shortcomings. First, reductionism—they overlook broader religious goals, focusing solely on specific aspects of life improvement while neglecting its diverse dimensions. Second, they demonstrate a one-sided view of intuition and show leniency regarding the criteria for its validity.

In Augustine's thought, human nature is sick because of original sin, and this disease has also made humans incapable of achieving salvation and doing good deeds. Hence, it needs an external factor to be strengthened: grace. The result of Augustine's belief is that babies are guilty of physical birth in such a situation. In the meantime, Pelagius believes that Augustine's approach has results that undermine the tenets of Christian doctrinal principles. First, it deprives God of the attributes of justice and power, while the Bible considers God to be just because the Bible considers God to be Just and seeks a conception of man as a just creature. Secondly, It causes an unfair interpretation of Divine Grace that challenges other inner areas of human beings and reduces them to inefficiency. Therefore, to solve this problem, Pelagius first considers the human will to be free, and in the next step, he introduces human nature as pure and explains it with an Arian approach; he first explains grace and then confronts Augustine's interpretation of Paul. He also considers Augustine's evidence from the Bible metaphorical, thus declaring the infants free from any sin. In this study, we intend to investigate this issue descriptively and refer to original sources.

Personality psychologists consider various factors to be influential in personality development. One of the key factors is the person’s own will. The main aim of this study is to investigate the role of voluntary action in shaping personality. To achieve this goal, a rational method is used. The research findings show that "voluntary action" is an action in which the agent's love or hatred plays a fundamental role. Furthermore, the effectiveness of voluntary action on personality development requires it to be accompanied by pleasure or pain. This condition applies to both outward behaviors and inward behaviors. The findings also suggest that the main components of personality (i.e., cognition and inclination) have different levels. As a result, personality has layers. Not all of these personality layers are actualized; only sensory cognitions and inclinations are actualized, provided the sensory system is sound. The rest of the layers are mainly potential and require education, training, and the acquisition of necessary skills to be actualized. Human beings can only develop their capacities related to cognition and inclination and shape their personalities through voluntary actions, continuous practice, persistent effort, and difficult self-discipline.

By accepting the role of human will in accepting and forming, maintaining, and using belief-forming procedures, John Heil emphasizes the responsibility of man towards beliefs. Despite Heil's defense of indirect doxastic voluntarism, he follows a graded process from the directness of the will's role in the procedure of forming and maintaining belief to the indirect influence of accepting and forming belief. In the formation of beliefs, Heil does not accept the direct will to believe, which is based on the famous idea of Cartesian. However, by distinguishing between direct doxastic voluntarism and indirect doxastic voluntarism, explaining the concept of basic and non-basic acts, and expressing procedures and techniques such as behavioral change, he tries to interpret the acceptance and formation of beliefs under the voluntary but indirect control of people. In this research, by using the analytical-critical method, we aim to show that by modifying Heil's view, accepting epistemic responsibility based on the view of indirect doxastic voluntarism is meaningful.

Authority is one of the most thought-provoking topics in philosophy, theology, and love. The basis of mystical discussions has long been addressed by elders and thinkers. Authority is defined as the choice, freedom, and preference of something for something and the love of the extreme. In the time of the Companions, theologians debated about authority, which resulted in the formation of two sects, Qadriya and Al-Jabriya. In; But the conversation about love has also been discussed among poets, mystics and elders since ancient times. Rabia al-Adawiyah is considered to be one of the prominent women in the path and mysticism who initiated the hadith of love and affection. Man is the full manifestation of God Almighty, so he has the essence of free will. According to Dr. Dinani, free will includes a kind of consciousness, which will be the way to reach perfection, and this perfection is considered the goal of man. Love has created a strong passion between the lover and the beloved that will deprive the lover of the ability to give up, but this characteristic will have perception and awareness. Love will not destroy free will, and the result is that there was no conflict between love and free will, but love will show the beauties of free will.

In various philosophical perspectives, the concept of the essence and being of the universe is one of the issues that has always led to discussions and reflections among renowned philosophers such as Plato and Arthur Schopenhauer. Plato, focusing on the concept of ideas and the world of thought, and Schopenhauer, emphasizing the will and the concept of the "thing in itself," have created various views on truth and existence, each influenced by different philosophical and historical backgrounds. This article seeks to provide a deeper insight into the concept of the essence or "being" of the universe and the epistemological function of art within it through the study and analysis of the perspectives of Plato and Schopenhauer. By examining these concepts, the role and importance of art as a means of understanding and cognizing the universe are explored. On one hand, a look into Plato's philosophy and the concept of ideas and forms is presented to understand how art relates to truth and being, and on the other hand, Schopenhauer's perspective on will and the "thing in itself" and the role of art in understanding and visualizing these concepts are examined. Given that each of these perspectives is rooted in rich and sometimes complex philosophical thoughts, the writing of this article is dedicated to a detailed analysis of the concepts and a review of various sources related to these topics. It is hoped that these analyses can present the perspectives of Plato and Schopenhauer in the context of art and knowledge to the readers in the best possible way, aiding in a clearer understanding and enlightenment of our perception of the world and art.

Literature Review:

In the articles "Aesthetics and Art in Plato's Philosophy" by Abolhasan Ghaffari (2015) and "The Role of Art in Schopenhauer's Thought" by Mohammad Javad Safaian and Amini (2009), Plato's view on art and its levels, as well as Schopenhauer's view on the role of art in alleviating pain and suffering, have been explained. However, the comparison between these two thoughts, especially the epistemic function of art in understanding the essence of the world or the thing-in-itself, is a new approach addressed in this article.

     This article attempts a descriptive-analytical approach. After explaining the phenomenal world and the essence from Schopenhauer's perspective, the importance and position of art, the levels of art, and its epistemic function in Schopenhauer's thought are discussed by contemplating Plato's philosophy and his view on the relationship between art and understanding the truth of the world.

Schopenhauer, like Plato, regards this world as a manifestation wherein the essence is manifested; because behind the sensible, there is an inner and mysterious truth, the visible world is entirely subsidiary and dependent on it, and there is no intrinsic difference between this visible world and the essence for Schopenhauer, just as for Plato, there is no intrinsic difference between the natural world and the world of forms. Considering the degrees of existence and corresponding degrees and levels of knowledge, this world is a shadow of that world, and knowledge of this world is a degree of levels of cognition, and during the example, it is considered as the highest example. The essence or the being of the world for Schopenhauer is the will, but the will is not the same as the Platonic example because from Schopenhauer's perspective, the Platonic example, which is rational, is an intermediary between will as the essence and the visible. Whereas, Schopenhauer's will be not accessible to reason. This is where the role and position of art in Schopenhauer's philosophy become clear; because Schopenhauer, like Plato, believes in the epistemic function of art; because art for Schopenhauer is not the expression of emotions and feelings; rather, art is a particular understanding of reality. Art is directly and immediately, not with general and abstract concepts, seeks to reach the essence and being of the world, and with art as the power of inner thought, knowledge of the essence and will, namely, the inner and true reality of the world, is attainable. Therefore, Schopenhauer considers true art as the observation of the general and will. Furthermore, art can create a kind of deep thought in humans to free the mind from the captivity of desires and, as a result, transcend suffering and hardships in the superior world. Plato, considering the relationship between epistemology and ontology in art, like Schopenhauer, seeks to give authenticity to art. Plato, by raising the criterion of knowledge for the artist in creating an artistic work, shows that the arts, as it were, in different directions, are reflective of knowledge of truth and untruth. Therefore, for Plato, knowledge is the most important component in imitation; if imitation is based on ignorance and lack of knowledge, it has a reprehensible meaning, and imitation based on knowledge is desirable and preferred. Plato in the Republic considers imitation as a formative authority that can be multi-layered; that is, it can be close to the truth or far from it, and while being imitative, believes that to imitate well, one must know the truth. The closer an art is to the truth, the more valuable it is; therefore, any art indifferent to the truth is considered worthless.

Explaining actions through cognitive and motivational components such as cognition, desire, intention and etc. is amongst the most important issues in the philosophy of action. The main goal of this research is studying the qualities that convert Man’s behavior into action. Defining action and explaining the basic factors involved in it are two interconnected issues, i.e. the identified factors involved in action exactly correspond the criteria (qualities) which convert behavior into action. In Western intellectual tradition belief, desire and will are the most critical factors determining action while in the Islamic intellectual tradition more emphasis is laid on the concepts of might, choice and will. The present study examined the aforementioned concepts in the views of Islamic philosophers and theologians in the light of Allamah Tabatabaei. It was concluded that knowledge, above all, practical knowledge is the most critical factor involved in Man’s action. According to Allamah Tabatabai, compared to might, desire, will and choice, it is the practical knowledge that carries the most critical role in determining action and distinguishing it from behavior.

Mullā Ṣadrā maintains that the distinction of practice from other acts pertains to its “intentional” nature. In his view, “intention” includes the free will accompanied with the second level of consciousness acting based on the purpose of practice. Therefore, not each voluntary act is called “practice”; rather, practice is a voluntary act that emerges along with the second level consciousness based on the purpose of act. The results of this study, which was conducted following a descriptive-analytic method and through the analysis of conceptual concomitants of practice, indicate that Mullā Ṣadrā’s definition is not mutually exclusive. This is because, based on the example of “self-conscious” robot, one can assume an agent that enjoys free will and consciousness but its act is not intentional. Therefore, to complete the definition of practice, in addition to free will and consciousness, one needs a third element or the same “choice”. Mullā Ṣadrā does not officially recognize “choice” as the third element of practice and reduces it to the same consciousness and the free will. Nevertheless, the present study demonstrates that he is wrong, and “choice” in the sense of “the freedom to use the free will” must be added to the definition of practice. This study mainly aims to examine the quiddative structure of “practice” in the Transcendent Philosophy and distinguish “practice” from other similar affairs.

The process of inferring the ethical law in Kantian ethics has been a contentious topic among contemporary Kantian scholars. The central issue revolves around how one can justify the ethical law - the categorical imperative - from the Kantian perspective or, in Kant's terms, influenced by the jurists of his time. In other words, how can we establish the ethical law and the ethical way of living in a world governed by mechanical necessity, which is not illusory? Can the idea of freedom serve as a valid and foundational basis for inferring the ethical law? If freedom lacks any sensory or cognitive basis, can it still be used to infer or justify another concept?  The foundation of the ethical law in Kant's two works, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals and Critique of Practical Reason, is the idea of freedom. However, whether we can have cognitive knowledge about freedom independent of the ethical law is another fundamental question. In this essay, In the current essay, an attempt has been made to, after establishing the principles of pure practical reason and the ethical law, provide a clear justification of the idea of freedom by referring to various interpretations in both books, Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals and Critique of Practical Reason. The fundamental idea of Groundwork for inferring the ethical law in the third section of the book is freedom and the transition to the rational world. Kant, in the Critique of Practical Reason, presents the idea of the fact of reason or the immediate awareness of the ethical law to explain freedom, thus justifying the possibility of acting by the ethical law and ethical living. After analyzing these two fundamental ideas - the idea of freedom and the idea of fact of reason - based on readings by scholars such as Timmermann, Guyer, Lewis White Beck, and Dieter Henrich, it is concluded that freedom cannot be the basis and cognitive reason for our adherence to the ethical law because freedom cannot be apprehended through any sensory experience, and consequently, one cannot infer the ethical law through freedom. Therefore, the proof of the idea of freedom is temporarily set aside and there will be no "Deduction" here; only explanation remains, and Kant, through the idea of the fact of reason or immediate awareness of the ethical law and accepting that "the ethical law as something given to practical reason is the reason and cognitive basis for our idea of freedom," explains the concept of freedom. Thus, instead of deducting the ethical law based on the idea of freedom the idea of freedom is analyzed based on the ethical law as the fact of reason.

Undoubtedly, the problem of human beings and the recognition of his nature are considered to be the main concerns of Kant. This concern, before he began to write his critical philosophy, led him to research subjects related to human nature, and eventually led him to consider humanity as an answer to the main philosophical question. Kant distinguishes between two types of research on the nature of mankind: the pragmatic research that speaks of it in his ‘anthropology from a pragmatic point of view’, and transcendental research that is called ‘transcendental anthropology’, a term that he did not explain in any of his works. But what does Kant mean by this term and what does this concept mean about humans? In this article we are trying to examine two aspects of the term, the anthropological and transcendental, to clarify Kant’s mind and verify his definition of the human being. This study shows that Kant tries to examine the mental faculties of human beings to understand a priori what can be achieved about him. This study shows that, first, man is nothing but the origin of the laws of nature and can understand the fundamental laws of nature. Secondly, what to do is the moral law imposed upon him by his wit. And finally, what would have hoped is nothing more than that he realizes his ends through moral law and changes the natural world into the moral world.

Asceticism has been one of the most important concepts in Arthur Schopenhauer’s philosophy, especially in his theory of salvation. He has defined salvation as releasing from pain and suffering and achieving long-term tranquility. According to him, such tranquility may be achieved by the way of asceticism. Life is suffering according to him. Hence, a way of relief must be sought. Thus, he has thought that the source of all suffering is will. He has actually considered suffering as a phenomenon of will and an essential part of human life. Therefore, will has to be denied, surpassed, and dumbed if relief and peace are required. Denying and ignoring the appetites and wishes makes the relief possible. Thus, he paid special attention to the concept of Asceticism and declared it as the only way of true salvation. This essay tried to explain the concepts of Asceticism and salvation and then show how Asceticism may soothe human beings' sufferings and lead to salvation according to Schopenhauer.

Authority and its relationship with the philosophical principle of cause and effect necessity is known as one of the most essential and challenging topical issues among philosophers and Islamic orators. Each of the scholars in the field has tried to express his own definition of the issue regarding his own line of thought.The present study deals with the problem regarding a library study data collection and using a descriptive-analytic method and it is fundamental considering the aim of the study. This research intends to investigate the viewpoints of Sadr-al-Motaallehin Shirazi regarding authority and cause and effect principle necessity. After probes of works and writings of Sadra, it was concluded that Sadra’s ideas were rooted in philosophical mysticism principles and he tried to represent authority compatible with cause and effect principle necessity. Believing in such a principle not only does not deny authority but also approves it. It accepts the principle that there isn’t any obligation but one can choose from among different options and this represents the borderline between responsibility and authority clearly and considers authority to be synonymous with being a follower.

Adopting a descriptive-analytical method, the present study deals with issuing action from Ghazali’s point of view. Consistent with his different perspectives that he assumes, research in the field of Ghazalian studies enjoys coherence and has the quality of opening different windows of insight into the stages of the process of issuing action. As examples, we can refer to involuntary promise and the lack of inconsistency between Ghazali’s topics of discussion with those of the intellectual pillars of psychology. He has stablished the infrastructure of the intellectual pillars of psychology and the structure of action in his early works. He has explained the apparent conflict of his theory of inaccessibility of the essence of things and the philosophical definition of man in Ma'arej al-Quds. The current structure of man, from the deep to the surface structure, is the scientific position of choosing the end, creating enthusiasm through the sensual powers and the power of anger (willful action), or through the power of knowledge (volitional action). Willful enthusiasm belongs to the animal stage and volitional enthusiasm to the stage of man. Its surface structure consists of motor muscles. The necessitas of actualization of choosing the end and non-volitional minds in both mystical and philosophical approaches is reaching the position of dogmatism according to the rank of each human being, which explains the apparent contradiction between opinion and action. Applying will to the structure of action indicates the role of will in performing optional and obligatory actions.

The power of human will is one of the important characteristics of a human being, with which he chooses his manner of life and destiny. In this research, the problem of human will from the perspective of Thomas Aquinas and Mulla Sadra has been investigated with a qualitative and descriptive-analytical method. Research findings show that, in both perspectives, human will is an internal desire directed toward its goal. Aquinas considers the origin of human will to be nature and passion in general; And he considers the principle of free will to be rational rules. But Mulla Sadra considers human will according to the principles of transcendental wisdom to be of the nature of existence and gradational that human beings have the strongest will due to the high rank of their existence among creatures. Both thinkers believe that man's will is a divine gift that is at a lower level than God's will, but man has free will also.

Art is one of the most obvious mysterious manifestations of human culture and civilization Which has always overshadowed human life. in Schopenhauer's philosophy, art, as a part of This system, is presented in its interior and is an integral part of his philosophical system. This study is library method and content analysis seeks to examine the place of the art of Music in Schopenhauer's philosophical system. in order to achieve this, the whole category of art has been studied from the perspective of this Philosopher. the results of the studies Showed that in Schopenhauer's philosophy, art is no longer considered "art as art", but art Seeks to solve the problem of existence and as a means and passage for liberation from Domination of will to life, the principle of Sufficient direction and its face is proposed. Schopenhauer believes that music has no place and no illusion makes us familiar with a kind of Deep reality outside the place and, it has more power than other arts to raise us from this Sensual world. he considers music the best arts and architecture as the lowest of them. Because, music is not only ideas, but also will itself, and architecture, like the furthest place to ideas, is the lowest of the arts.

Heidegger believes that the subject of representation is essentially a subject that wills the represented in every representation in a way that the expansion of the domains of human representation and going through the reality and determining it as a subject is directly related to the expansion of his will and expression of his will in the world. When Nietzsche answers the question of what is the being of beings with the will to power in fact he expresses the hidden source of all representational tradition which was unsaid to him. For Heidegger, the will to power brings subjectivity to its end. and end which culminated in our technological age of reducing humanity to be a representation of a greater will that Heidegger calls will to will. But the article approaches the problem just mentioned not as a distinguished phenomenon but treats it totally in the tradition of the west as emerged in the light of the essence of truth as dominant in Rome. Having this in mind, we argue that the technological age is the reversal of representational relation which delivers man over the darkest night of his destiny and consequently decentralizes him in favor of a bib picture of the world which is able to give a coherent narration from everything. It is this inhuman and also technological narration that extracts the subjective will of the representing subject.

Obligationism is one of the consequences of voluntary belief; therefore, the relationship between will and belief is of interest to epistemologists. The main question of this research is to investigate this relationship from William James' point of view, to determine whether from his point of view, non-cognitive factors are also effective in belief, and what effect human will and voluntary nature have on a person's beliefs. This study concluded that although William James disagreed with Clifford's command of direct voluntarism, he was a voluntarist himself. From his point of view, man’s emotional nature not only can, but must choose between hypotheses, and of course, this is only possible in the case of "genuine" choices. From James' point of view, previous acceptances, reputation, and authority of others; practical application of belief; and inclinations are effective in the will to believe. In contrast to Clifford, who did not believe in the belief without sufficient evidence, he believes that man should experience, repeat this experience, and reach the truth by thinking about the results obtained from these experiences. From his point of view, the role of will is prominent in ethics, and the will also plays a role in personal relationships. James believes that one’s prior tendencies and belief in reality play an active role in the realization of that reality.

Philosophers consider perceptual, passionate and practical origins as the beginning of Human action according to Allama, The will in the process of the action is independent of perceptual and passionate origins. The research deals with Allama's innovation in this field with a descriptive analytical method. AlFarabi and Avesina believe in the efficacy of alanayyah and consider perception as the main origin of action. Desire and will are considered as a requirement for the perception Central believe in the oficacy of manifestation. Sadra analyzed abstract perception while discovering details as the main origins of the action and he sees will as a requirements of perception and desire as the origins of action. ln this way with the intensity of desire will is a type of desire. Allama does not consider perception and desire as the main origins of the action from his point of view existence is the origin of the action perception and desire are inherent qualities not actual as an imperfect cause the affect the realization of the action but the perfect cause is existence and it reach the stage of action with Will. According to Allama the real is the main origin in the realization of the action.