form of life

The research aims to address the problem of cognitive biases in modern religious experiences and identify potential solutions. Using a descriptive-analytical approach and drawing on the insights of theorists in the field, particularly Wittgenstein, this study examines the interactive relationship between metaphysics and general belief, as well as the connection between religious metaphysics and religious life forms. It emphasizes that interpreting religious experiences without considering the context of one's form of life can lead to cognitive biases. Consequently, interpretations that deviate from the form of life may lack personal meaning and be deemed heretical from an external perspective.

The concept of faith and reasoning and how they are related is one of the controversial issues that humanity has been facing for a long time. Norman Malcolm, an American philosopher and one of Wittgenstein's most famous students and commentators, has a unique expression about faith and reasoning and the relationship between the two, relying on Wittgenstein's later thoughts such as language game, the form of life, etc. By presenting similarities between the philosophical understanding and the characteristics of Wittgenstein's religious thought, Malcolm intends to find a solid relationship between faith and reasoning. Malcolm has explained the types of resemblance between faith and reasoning by appealing to concepts such as the finality of explanation, religious wonder, the elimination of error, the belief in the primacy of action and the groundlessness of belief. This issue leads him to the fact that the source of faith and reasoning is one thing, and in other words, these two are connected in a baseless foundation. In this article, with a descriptive-analytical method and in a systematic manner, an attempt has been made both to achieve a correct understanding of Malcolm's thoughts about the relationship between faith and reasoning, using his works and passages, and to review the opinions and criticisms of his critics such as Peter Winch and Kai Nelson.

According to Cavell, on one hand relation between moral values and the reality based on the grammatical criteria of Wittgenstein is not rational; on the other hand, disability of moral criteria is not logical .From this point of view, the claim of having access to the pure reality is meaningless, because there is not a logical possibility of such success that one can or cannot do it. In other words, we don't have the natural possibility for having a logical and rational way to solve moral problems. Therefore moral issues are not rational.From the view of Cavell’s Wittgenstein, meaning is appearing during using language game inside its form of life. So, in the process of responding to an ethical request, Wittgenstein's human, responds to the reality in certain situations, depending on the conditions, with the intention and moral judgment, Thus from his view point, before using words in moral language games, we do not have meaning.

Since Wittgenstein is known for his two philosophies, one of the concerns of interpreters of his thoughts is to understand the relation between his two philosophies. Hutto is one of the interpreters who have endeavored to identify a reliable relation between Wittgenstein’s philosophies in order to present a coherent and consistent interpretation of these philosophies. In his view, this approach results in resolving superficial and profound conflicts in Wittgenstein’s philosophies. In Hutto’s words, an integrated basis that relates Wittgenstein’s two philosophies is Wittgenstein’s “end of philosophy”, and his attitude towards “nature and meaning of language”. Based on Hutto’s interpretation, in two of Wittgenstein’s intellectual periods, the end of philosophy was ‘description’, but Wittgenstein’s philosophical attitude towards the nature of language was evolved: an evolution from logical form to form of life. Hutto attempts to show that this evolution was not Wittgenstein’s main intention and it emerged through the method he applied for offering his thoughts. In Hutto’s view, Wittgenstein’s attitude in his second philosophy is correct, based on the ‘functional attitude’ and his attitude in his first philosophy is faulty, based on the ‘picture theory’, and this fault results from Wittgenstein’s confusion. He intends to extend the second philosophy method to the first philosophy in order to interpret the whole philosophy by one end and attitude. Although his conclusion is exquisite, it results in the conclusion that in Tractatus, there is no substantial point worth keeping.

Kripke’s interpretation of Wittgenstein’s investigations separates into two parts: “Skeptical paradox” and “Private language argument”. The investigations focus on a Semantic Skepticism Paradox tied with Rule-following, and its other important problems should be interpreted in the same way. The subject of this research is the analysis of Kripke’s unrealistic interpretation of meaning through grammar interpretation of the word “skepticism”. Kripke shows that an unrealistic view of meaning is in the ordinary of language games and related to its creative nature within an unlimited variety, and meaning arises from a special relationship between language and realism that exists inside the form of life under specific conditions. And this gives different dimensions to the grammar of meaning base on its place and nature inside. As a result of this analysis, the meaning has many different dimensions in the course of our active life and can only in one of its uses be used as a realistic view of meaning and we cannot generalize the grammar of this specific use to the other grammars and uses.

“Form of life” is considered one of the most significant concepts in Wittgenstein's later philosophy. This term is one of his most ambiguous philosophical concepts. This paper tries to explain the specific and fundamental role of “form of life” as a cornerstone for the whole of Wittgenstein's later philosophy; a role that has not attracted much attention in Wittgenstein scholarship. From the author's perspective, describing the form of life as a condition for the possibility of language can put an end to some of the challenges in Wittgenstein's later philosophy such as Behavioralism, being trapped in general linguistic relativity and the reduction of all reality to linguistic principles. This study attempts to prove the fundamental role of this concept by studying Wittgenstein’s later position toward philosophical explanation in general and pictorial theory of language in particular, and by analyzing in detail the concept of form of life in his later works. Finally, the authors will provide a possible fifth path entitled “Phenomenological Interpretation” through a critical analysis of the four existing interpretations on the concept of form of life.

The effect of social and cultural changes in the dynamics of semantic teaching and learning of the words and propositions of religious law and theology rises an issue this study has been intended to answer it. Therefore, the paper has studied the likenesses and differences of Wittgenstein and feqhi theories, namely the theory of the form of life and that of particular common sense. In the paper, Sunni and Shiite sources have been studied for the meaning of the feqhi particular common sense at first and, then, it has been compared with an exegesis of the form of life. As explained in the paper, the cases of likeness include the states of temporality, collectiveness, awareness and the case of difference include relativity. And, finally, with a secondary analysis of the case of difference, the posibility of its being neglcted has been studied.

In this essay, we would review the coherence theory of truth from the viewpoint of the later Wittgenstein's philosophy, in order to answer the two problems with which this theory faces. First, the Problem of the system of beliefs isolated from the world; and second, the problem of evaluating alternative coherent systems of beliefs. In the beginning, we will examine two assumptions of the coherence theory of truth, which lead to these two problems, and the two problems themselves. Then, reviewing the coherence theory, we will provide a solution for these two problems. It will become clear that the hinge propositions derived from the later Wittgenstein's epistemological ideas, would be an efficient solution to the isolation objection. Finally, to find a solution for the second problem, we can, by formulating the coherence theory in the light of this kind of propositions, use the criterion of the efficiency of the system of beliefs in order to make a choice between two alternative coherent systems of beliefs.

Analyzing any concept in Wittgenstein's thoughts has a strong relationship with his contemplation on "language". And analyzing the concept of reality is not an exception; especially because the reality is the closest concept to the language as a key element in Wittgenstein's thought. And perhaps it may be possible to pose the main question of his two periods of contemplation in this way: "how does language reflect the reality to us"?
In this paper I have tried to, by referring to Wittgenstein's intellectual framework, analyze the relativity of language, mentality (thought) and reality. And I would like to, by comparing the Wittgenstein who is seen in the Logical-Philosophical treatise with the second Wittgenstein who is divulged in the philosophical studies, to reconstruct the traversed route in the treatise and analyze the reality in a hypothesis and finally pose this question that "is it possible to achieve an illustration of reality in the latter Wittgenstein's thought from the functional hypothesis of meaning or language in the guise of function?"
This route ends in two different schools: realism and anti-realism. It seems that both attitudes are not adaptable about Wittgenstein and a kind of relativism in confronting with reality can be observed in Wittgenstein's thought which is largely semantic and in some layers it is also ontological but it never ends in extreme realism.

Some areas of Philosophical Investigation lay prey to relativistic interpretations. Some of the most important are language games and Kripke’s reading of the concept of rule following. In addition, contemporary philosophers discuss the possibility of dialogue and comparison between forms of life and their independency. Some of these philosophers concentrate on differences of forms of life and deny the possibility of comparison and understanding of each other, stressing on special paragraphs of philosophical Investigations. On the other hand, another group emphasizes other parts of philosophical Investigations and invokes Wittgenstein’s approach to various forms of life. They don’t accept relativistic readings of philosophical Investigation. They argue that when forms of life are completely different and independent, people living in one form of life cannot recognize any other forms of life and therefore cannot even speak about them or name them as a “form of life”. Similarly, Interpreters have adverse views concerning Kripke’s reading of Wittgenstein. On the one hand, a group believes in an objective criterion for determination of the sense. On the other, a group thinks that following a rule according to what language users do, is the only criterion we have.

One of the most boisterous topics of the philosophy of religion that has been rooted from the wittgenstien's view points, is the non-realisme of religios propositions. Phillips as a follower of wittgenstien has trid to offer a radical non-realistic. He thought that the fact is completely linguistic and language is creator of all things. According of his positivist principles, religious concepts have no references to facts. Because this kind of reference is specially for Knowledge. Finally he has accepted the non-cognitive of religious belief and so, on the baisis of this non-realism, he has to deny the objectivity of the metaphysical concepts such as (God). primarily this thesis intended to express the principles that resulted noncognitive religious language and then expresses the necessaries and criticisms of this theory.

The Theory of Language Games is the key notion of Ludwig Wittgenstein''s latter philosophy. This theory has been crafted against The Picture Theory of Language as the core of Wittgenstein’s Tractarian vision. According to The Picture Theory of Language، Language has merely one function: picturing reality. We can grasp the truth of World through grasping the truth of Language. Indeed، this latter theory is a representative of a Modern view of language. On the contrary، according to The Theory of Language Games، Language is a Multidimensional phenomenon; hence، we could never understand it from an Essentialist point of view. Indeed، Language consists of a body of different Language Games: Linguistic Functions. Each of such language games is connected with a special Form of Life. Thus conceived، understanding a language game essentially implies understanding the very Form of Life within which the language game occurs. The Theory of Language Games is a Postmodern Philosophical Standpoint of Language. And، in this article، our main goal is to analyze different aspects of this latter remark.

The present paper deals with Wittgenstein's influence on theology considering the concept of “logical atmosphere”, which connects his earlier and later philosophical ideas.It reveals that the concepts underlying his earlier and later philosophies have had numerous impacts upon theology. Accordingly, they have been discussed under two groups of actual and potential ones.