modern science

This paper is about the condemnation of 1277 that was issued by the bishop of Paris (Etienne Tempier) against the Aristotelian, Thomistic and Averroist theological teachings. This condemnation was initially aimed at protecting the doctrine of God's absolute power and critique of the philosophical and theological reasoning about God, but later it led to new developments that were outside of the initial goals of its founders and were in conflict with it. This research, using an analytical approach, tries to provide an analysis of the backgrounds and philosophical and theological disagreements that led to the condemnation of 1277, and to present a map of its conceptual scope. Then, we have discussed some of the epistemological and theological implications of this condemnation, among which the doctrine of God's absolute power is the most prominent and one of the main goals of this condemnation. But we have also raised and analyzed the long-term implications such as nominalism, secularism, and the development of modern science and its departure from the Platonic perspective, and it has shown that these are hidden implications that were not only unintended by the founders of the condemnation but also in conflict with their main lines of thought.

The issue of this article is to introduce the general field of science and religion and explain its importance. For this purpose, after defining the desired meanings for "science", "religion" and "theology", we address the question "Why does theology relate to science?". After that, we will describe the various stages that non-sensory knowledge will enter into the process of scientific theorizing, and in this section, we will refer to some of the accepted theses of the philosophy of science of the second half of the 20th century. Then, we will define naturalism and show its place as one of the irreplaceable foundations of the modern experimental science, and we will depict the theological consequences of its acceptance. Finally, looking at the contrast of naturalism with theism on the one hand and the falseness of naturalism on the other hand, we will establish the necessity of a monotheistic worldview in the process of understanding nature.

This study compares the views of Walter Stace and Molla Sadra on the meaningfulness of life. Stace believes that the beginning of the problem of the meaning of life occurred when the scholars of the 17th century onward turned away from something called ultimate causes. The destruction of the world’s purposefulness and the telescoping of its phenomena after Galileo is a key event in the history and culture of the West to end the supremacy of religion in Western culture. The removal of the final cause in the history of Western thought has caused changes in scientific and philosophical debates, and this issue, in turn, caused a change in the attitude of man to the discussion of God as a creator and eternal power. As a result, the main issue of man, that is, the discussion about the meaning of life changed accordingly. This has become the main reason for the marginalization of God's divinity and the replacement of human powers, the final result of which has been the dominance of nihilistic approaches. After that, the conquest of secularization and anti-religion challenged the issue of the meaning of life of the new man, and after that, man sees God not as the source of meaning, but as an obstacle to the way of life.Therefore, he relies on his awareness and will and thinks of himself as the creator of the meaning of life. For this reason, the discussion of discovering and searching for the meaning of life has been changed in the past and replaced by meaning-creating approaches and talk of falsifying meaning. The issue of whether man is the builder and creator of the meaning of his life or acquires it from an external factor has become a big challenge for modern mankind. The modern man, due to various reasons such as scientific and philosophical advances, the weakness of religious authorities (Jewish and Christian) in responding to his intellectual and practical needs, the inappropriate behavior of the church towards people of thought and the growing growth of capitalism and consumerism, has suffered a crisis of servitude and unbridled freedom. Absurdity and meaninglessness followed by sadness, anxiety, and despair in individual life, on the one hand, and insecurity and injustice in social and global life, on the other hand, have been the inevitable consequences of self-centered servitude and libertarianism. In the meantime, what is neglected is the essential and natural structure of humans. The new man denied his nature (Fetrat) in order to achieve the freedom of self-foundation in thought and action by turning his back on his tradition.Molla Sadra, an accomplished philosopher and the founder of the philosophical system of transcendental wisdom, believes that life in itself does not have intrinsic value, and worldly life is merely a place to reach human perfection and happiness, which is nearness and annihilation in God. As a result, it has no intrinsic usefulness except in terms of the position of being connected and close to God, through which the possibility of transformation and evolution becomes possible. In his opinion, the meaning of life is completely tied to its purpose, and this purpose is objective and real and not fake or subjective at all. Proximity and annihilation in the name of God are considered the ultimate goal in evolutionary and revolutionary processes by passing through the four journeys from man to God.In his opinion, life has a deep interior in addition to its outer shell, which is considered the goal and perfection of human life based on its philosophical rules and foundations such as essential movement, rational and rational unity, and the reference and return of the universe to the essence of the true meaning of life in the three concepts of purpose, value, and function, and to achieve celibacy in its various types without limits. From his point of view, life and living have degrees of Tashkik. In this regard, Molla Sadra speaks of a good life with the words of revelation and finds it in an existential relationship with human knowledge in such a way that the more certainty and development of man is, the more his life will be. According to its strength and stability, it becomes more meaningful. In his opinion, man is the highest of creations, and his creation is not empty and aimless, and human nature (Fetrat) is deeply and intrinsically tied to God-seeking, and materialism and skepticism have no way in his philosophical system. Empirical science is also a product of man's distance from his original nature, lack of capacity, and stopping at the lowest levels of human reason.

Martin Heidegger's idea is a whole interconnected and the universality of it can be considered as a "philosophy of technology". The central concept of Heidegger's philosophy is Being, concealment and its concealment. His course of thought begins with a critique of metaphysics from Plato to Nietzsche and it goes on to try to develop another kind of philosophy.Then, by way of metaphysics, it reaches Gestell. The " Gestell" absolute a horizon of the concealment of Being as the essence of modern technology, with its semantic synonymy in the sense of perfection and the end of metaphysics. The present study will reconstruct Heidegger's thought about the concept of "Gestell" and will show how his totality of thought can be regarded as a philosophy of integrated technology. As any regional interpretation of his views on technology will require consideration of the whole of his thinking.

The methodological naturalism, ie, the elimination of the Supernatural causes in the explanation of nature, what is the situation in the history of Western thought, and in which process was recognized as the main feature of the new science? With the historical study of Western thinking, it becomes clear that the roots of methodological naturalism reach the end of the period of myth and the beginning of philosophical thinking. In ancient Greece, with the exception of Plotinus and, to a certain extent, Plato, the dominant discourse in the recognition of nature, was a natural cause. In the early Middle Ages, due to the tendency toward Plato and Plotinus, supra-nationalism and the revelation of knowledge were the method of scientists in understanding nature. But in the late Middle Ages, for the sake of Aristotle's influence, the naturalistic approach returned to the scientific space of the West. With the critique of Aristotle in the Renaissance and the scientific revolution in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, a new method of methodological naturalism was accepted as a method of science. Classic physics, with a deistic view of the universe and the theory of evolution, with the exclusion of any divine design and discipline, established new naturalism in the scientific space, and this characteristic is still recognized as the paradigm of science.

One of the most important features of modern science is its quantitative and mathematical method. It is commonly held that this method was developed along with modern science, during the 16th century, but a close historical investigation would suggest that this method was in fact developed during the theological debates of the late medieval era rather than during the Scientific Revolution. This is particularly important for elucidating the historical relationship between science and religion in the west. Evidence suggests that it was the Christian theologians, who in spite of their theological concerns, encouraged Empiricism. In the present paper, I shall investigate the motivating factors for developing a quantitative method in late medieval theology. I will prove these three elements to have played an important role in this: the study of Optics with theological interests, Platonism in theology, and having theological intentions in pursuing mathematics. Thus, the relation between Empiricism and late medieval theology will be demonstrated.

Tabatabie is an Islamic philosopher who believes in supernatural world and also believes in the causal relation between supernatural world and the nature. He was living in the modern world where the empirical science has an outstanding position. According to Quine, science is biased on physicalism which considers the nature independent. It seems that there is a contradiction between these two points of view. Tabatabie did not address this issue directly. However, in his philosophical writings, it can be found two theories in order to describe the relation between nature and the supernatural world that can be used as a solution for the aforementioned contradiction. The first solution is that although the ultimate cause of nature is the supernatural world, the near cause of natural activities are forms of the species. This solution opens the way to the consistency between science and Islamic philosophy. Nevertheless, it has also some difficulties. Another solution is that the nature in whole is the effect of the supernatural world as a simple creation, but all of the activities in the nature are related to natural causes. It seems that the second solution is better and can prepare better ground for the consistency between physicalism and the claim of Islamic philosophy. Still, it requires additional complimentary explanations to be coordinated with other philosophical claims.

This short piece of writing intends to elucidate the history of Islamic human sciences after Islamic revolution and also the development of religious sciences in Iran. The method of the research is descriptive-analysis and library resources. The results of the survey show many institutes after Islamic revolution with the aim of combining human sciences with Islamic teachings including seminary and university. They attempted to match pedagogical texts of universities with Islamic trainings. The author of the present article believes the efforts of institutes such as seminary and universities to match the universities educational texts with Islamic framework have not been basically operational.

Comparative study of three Islamic social science approaches in the scientific atmosphere of Islamic republic of Iran. “Documental Method” is used for data collection in the existing documents. Also, “Comparative Method” is used to study and compare the approaches. HosseinBostan by an epistemic approach realizes “Ijtehadi” (individual reasoning) method as the main feature of Islamic social science. Hamid Parsania by a cultural-epistemic approach attends the inner (epistemic) and exterior (epistemic and non-epistemic) factors of science production. Also he believes in an existing Islamic social science. HosseinKachooyan on the basis a social-historical approach realizes the nature of Islamic revolution as definer of the social science that should be produced. These approaches have many similarities together. Some of these similarities are basic and some other is non-basic. Also, these approaches have differences.

The present paper claims that if modern science has a cultural and historical identity with no relation to reason and revelation, then we can contemplate on a religious science - based on the authority of reason, revelation, and experience- as well as reviving Islamic culture, civilization, and history. The realization of religious science and science of religious communications will finally provide the grounds for the formation of a religious society. The research findings showed that the realization of science of religious communications is based on the production of religious sciences and the realization of religious society is based on the science of religious communications and religious science. Furthermore, this paper has referred to the Holy Prophet's way of communication as a realized model of interpersonal communication, from which the principles and foundations of science of religious communications can be extracted. Derrida's reanalysis and deconstruction method has been used in this research and a documentary method has been used to gather data.

Many contemporary Christian theologians have attempted to show the consistent of the religious teachings with the ideas of modernism. Rudolf Bultmann is one of these theologians. By accepting the modern worldview unquestionably, he tries to coordinate it with the existential needs of modern man through presenting an ontological interpretation from religion. As a Christian theologian, he believes that the teachings of the New Testament are mythological and they are inconsistent with the worldview of the modern science. His solution is to demythologization from religious teachings and interprets them ontologically. One of the doctrines that have been strongly rejected by Bultmann is miracle. This paper has considered the position of Bultmann in this subject.

The present inquiry aims at investigating the features of modern science from different aspects, including its aim, method, application, and impacts. The method of research is descriptive and analytical. This investigation, on the one hand, defines the identity of modern science and makes our understanding about it more exact. On the other hand, it exposes its essential difference and contrast with Islamic sciences. Meanwhile, it reveals some of its serious shortcomings. Radical rationalism, dominance of sense-knowledge and empirical knowledge, materialism and secularism, neglecting the end of existence, considering religious and philosophical propositions as nonsense, separation of knowledge and value, of knowledge and religion, and of knowledge and politics which serves as an instrument in the hands of politicians, omitting scientific certainty and relying solely on psychological certainty, seeking power instead of finding the truth, particularism and differentiating the sciences, are features of modern science which are investigated in this study.