music

Throughout history, there have been few poets, philosophers, or sages who have not mentioned music and Sama' in their written works. Shahab al-Din Sohrevardi, as one of the philosophers of the Islamic world, also had a special view of the states of the listener (audience) while listening to music and Sama'. He begins his discussion of music and Sama' with the concept of the audience and state. This approach to Sama' is unique. Performance art is one of the most controversial and fascinating trends in contemporary art. In performance art, the artist performs his/her work live in front of the audience. Performance art has always developed alongside literature, poetry, music, architecture, and painting. This research attempts to answer the following question: What is the nature of the audience in music and Sama' in Sohrevardi's view, and how is it connected to the audience in performance art?

The philosophy of music is a branch of philosophy that studies the meaning of music, the relationship between the artist and the creation of music, the relationship between the audience and music, and such issues. Since emotions and feelings constitute the meaning of music, the primary focus of theorists in this field is devoted to the fundamental question of where the emotional impact of music originates from. In the philosophy of music, there are two rival theories regarding the source of musical emotions: the expressive theory, which prioritizes the emotions of the artist in creating the work and considers the meaning of music in the expression of the artist's emotions, and the arousal theory, which gives priority to the emotions evoked in the listener and considers the meaning and purpose of music in eliciting the emotions of the audience.
The aim of this research is to facilitate the scientific examination of the relationship between music and emotions. The specific objectives of this research are as follows: _ Introducing and examining the most important theories and discussions in the philosophy of music. _ Investigating the most important criticisms that have been made on various theories in the philosophy of music and showing the efforts of theorists and philosophers to respond to these criticisms. _ Showing that old theories put forward by philosophers like Aristotle can still be relevant in current philosophical discussions. This highlights the importance of mastering the history of philosophy for researchers in this field. _ Demonstrating that music can (or even should) be subject to contemplation and philosophical inquiry. This research is classified as fundamental research in terms of the data collection method, which is qualitative research using a library research approach. Additionally, this research specifically utilizes up-to-date and primary sources in the field of philosophy of music.

Research Question(s):

Which of these two theories of Expression and Arousal provides a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between music and emotions and offers a better explanation of our emotional experiences when confronted with music?
Which theory can better respond to the criticisms raised against it?
Literature Review
Some of the most important articles published on the arousal theory of music are as follows (in chronological order):Mew, P (1984) The musical arousal of emotions.British Journal of Aesthetics 25 (4):357-361.
Robinson, J (1994) The expression and arousal of emotion in music. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 52 (1):13-22.
 Beever, A. (1998) The Arousal Theory Again? The British Journal of Aesthetics 38(1):82-90.
Kingsbury, J (1999) Why the Arousal Theory of Musical Expressiveness is Still Wrong? Australasian Journal of Philosophy 77 (1):83 – 88.
Matravers, D (2007) Musical expressiveness. Philosophy Compass 2 (3):373–379.
 Arbo, A. (2009) Some Remarks on “Hearing-as” and its Role in the Aesthetics of Music. Topoi 28 (2):97-107.
Cochrane, T. (2010) Music, Emotions and the Influence of the Cognitive Sciences. Philosophy Compass 5 (11):978-988.
Eerola, T. (2016) Being Moved by Unfamiliar Sad Music Is Associated with High Empathy. Frontiers in Psychology 7.
Levinson,  j (2016) Music-Specific Emotion: An Elusive Quarry. Estetika 53 (2):115-131.
Wu-Jing He (2017) Emotional Reactions Mediate the Effect of Music Listening on Creative Thinking: Perspective of the Arousal-and-Mood Hypothesis. Frontiers in Psychology 8

This research is classified as fundamental research in terms of its objective. The general aim of this research is to establish a conceptual framework for the philosophical examination of the relationship between music and emotions

In response to the first question, we first need to see what each of these two theories offers in response to the most important issue regarding emotions and music, namely the issue of the "relationship between expressed emotions in music and evoked emotions in the listener." The expressive theory addresses this issue with the concept of "grounding," while the motivational theory uses the concept of "emotional codes." Our analysis shows that the concept of "emotional codes" is more effective than "grounding" for two reasons:"Grounding" is a concept that claims objectivity, while by definition, the meaning of music lies in its sensory content. The conflict between the expressive theory and the motivational theory is essentially a conflict over determining the place of sensory content in music. The expressive theory places the sensory content in the expressed emotions in the musical piece and considers these emotions as a crystallization of the emotions of the creator, while the motivational theory places the sensory content of music in the emotions evoked in the listener through music. Referring to an objective concept to explain the place of sensory content, if not a theoretical impossibility, is an additional effort that only complicates the conflict between these two theories.
The concept of emotional codes conceptualizes the issue at the mental (or intermental) level and provides an effective framework for explaining the position of the sensory content of music. Different and varied reactions to music are appropriate. Furthermore, by introducing the concept of emotional codes, one can pave the way for framing research issues in an interdisciplinary context. This way, the issue of the sensory content of music can be explored in the interdisciplinary fields of musicology, philosophy, psychology, and neuroscience.
Our analysis has shown that the theory of motivation with our experiential intuition is more compatible. This is because the basis of judging a musical work is the experienced emotions, not the assumed emotions that the artist intended to express. For example, when we label a piece of music as sad, it is not because the composer intended to express sad emotions, but rather it is simply and intuitively because that piece evokes a sense of sadness in us.
As a result, the theory of motivation provides a better and more valid explanation of the relationship between music and emotions.
In response to the second question, it is important to consider the main criticism that challenges each of these two theories and how they respond to it. Our analysis has shown that the main criticism of the expressive theory is the "expression of unexperienced emotions," and proponents of the expressive theory, in response to this criticism, question the principles of this theory. They do not necessarily consider the expressed emotions as belonging to the artist, but rather see the artist as simply a narrator of the emotions of another individual (or even a completely imaginary person). In this way, they raise the larger question of whose emotions are being expressed in music. Since the answer cannot be the audience (as that would essentially turn it into a motivational theory), this question remains shrouded in ambiguity and mystery.
On the other hand, in our research, we demonstrated that the responses that have been presented to the issue of "liking sad music" are not defensible and valid. Furthermore, by using the concept of catharsis from Aristotle, we were able to propose an acceptable response to this criticism. We showed that our proposed response can address all the criticisms that were present in other responses.

Art is one of the most obvious mysterious manifestations of human culture and civilization Which has always overshadowed human life. in Schopenhauer's philosophy, art, as a part of This system, is presented in its interior and is an integral part of his philosophical system. This study is library method and content analysis seeks to examine the place of the art of Music in Schopenhauer's philosophical system. in order to achieve this, the whole category of art has been studied from the perspective of this Philosopher. the results of the studies Showed that in Schopenhauer's philosophy, art is no longer considered "art as art", but art Seeks to solve the problem of existence and as a means and passage for liberation from Domination of will to life, the principle of Sufficient direction and its face is proposed. Schopenhauer believes that music has no place and no illusion makes us familiar with a kind of Deep reality outside the place and, it has more power than other arts to raise us from this Sensual world. he considers music the best arts and architecture as the lowest of them. Because, music is not only ideas, but also will itself, and architecture, like the furthest place to ideas, is the lowest of the arts.

The current article studies the relation between alFarabi`s philosophy of musicand that of Plato.Plato as a Pythagoras with a strong ethical inclination has many arguments on music the most signicant of wich are given in Laws and the republic. Plato is faced with a theoretical and practical change in music in his time and is striving to prove the musica principles and maintain the old musical traditions, Whereas, alFarabi is not in such a historic turning point. He is in the center of Islamic civilization with musical ideas from different cultural backgrounds, has access to the books on Greek music theory, and is obsessed with developing a comprehensive musical sience.The relation between alFarabi`s and Plato`s philosophy of music is studied in four areas: music and cosmos, ethos and paideia, pleasure, utopia, and practical music, and significant differences in all areas have been concluded. Although they share views in same matters, their ideas are basically different. AlFarabi, being beyond Pythagorian discourse, has founded music on experience.

Music was a member of quadrivium in the Middle Ages, but the rise of humanism in the Renaissance led to a correlation between music and trivium. This transformation represents a fundamental turn in the epistemological domain of music, and reveals various dimensions of Western human thought. The present historical-analytical study seeks to answer the question of what has changed in the epistemological foundation of music from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance. The study of the course of intellectual developments during the Middle Ages showed how the science of music lost its high position among the numerical sciences in terms of subject matter and went to the domain of scientia media. Nevertheless, Renaissance human did not tolerate this position and devoted the subject of theoretical music to the experimental science of Acoustics. Practical music and composition also was assimilated by their homogeneous companions among trivium. This approach allowed music to acquire its theoretical needs, especially in the field of composition, from the members of trivium. Thus, music lost its epistemological foundation among the immutable matters and went into the realm of the contingencies; the domain of thoughts and the territory of Renaissance human subjectivity.

The relationship between music and the audience plays a significant role in the foundations of music philosophy. In a general view, Avicenna’s musical thought is presented in a scientific, mathematical, and rational structure. But this philosopher has not neglected the importance of issues like the music’s effect on the audience’s soul, understanding of music, and musical experiences. In this research, we have tried to explain the concept of the audience and music from his point of view by analyzing major elements of Avicenna’s music theory, including imagination and mimesis, as well as considering the principles of music science in his thought. Avicenna’s words about the audience in his discussions about mimesis, imagination, music of poetry, pleasure and disgust, culture and music, are not just complementary remarks; Rather, his words in this context are in a rational agreement with his intellectual system and his special methodology in the field, which means that he did not speak about the audience implicitly or only by chance. Basically, in his music theory, the audience has a special place. The present discussion has been organized under four general sections: mimesis and music, musical imagination, music’s effect on the audience, and the audience’s effect on the musical work. In doing this, we have used Avicenna’s first-hand collection of texts, especially his works on musicology, such as ‘A Comprehensive Account of Music’, in the mathematical section of his encyclopedic work, The Book of Healing</em>.

Assuming that practical theology seeks to think in a theological way about the individual and collective human being act, it is vital to heed one of the modern and theological forms of modern culture, namely the theology of fandom. The historical roots of fandom theology must be traced back to pre-modern and traditional times. In this article, we explain the ritual behaviors of modern fans using Paul Tillich's theoretical approach to the theology of culture. One of the obvious differences between modern, media-based fandom and fandom in traditional culture is the relationship between the fan and the celebrity through the media text, contrary to the traditional model in which the physical presence of the fan and the guide was used to be the main principle for the formation of the relationship. In this article, we will explain some of the features of fandom theology in modern culture. Moreover, we attempt to point out what are the differences between modern fans and traditional fans by presenting samples such as the behaviors of Iranian fans for one of the Korean pop bands. We also criticize the modern secular theology of fandom which is in contrast with traditional monotheistic one. In addition, the relation between the fans of Korean band Exo and religious matter will be investigated.

The existence of rhythm, harmony and symmetry in architecture and music shows us, these two artists have a lot in common. The buildings left from ancient times to the buildings that exist today; They express a conceptual connection between music and architecture, and it can be said that both arts have been the messengers of single concepts at any point in time. This connection is so much that some have mentioned architecture as frozen music.  These links have connections and points of commonality that these similarities and commonalities can be defined and categorized in these categories. Physical, visual, conceptual, epistemological, functional, aesthetic, structural, cultural, contextual... The purpose of this research is to find the connection between Plato's views and the aesthetic commonalities of music and architecture. The main research question: Is it possible to find commonalities between architecture and music according to Plato's views? There is no specific hypothesis in this research and answering the question cannot be considered as a novel hypothesis. This research has been carried out using a descriptive analytical method. The relativity of ideas and differences of opinion is one of the biggest obstacles and limitations of this research. Seyyed Baqer Hosseini in an article called "Mental pattern: the product of the interaction between music and architecture design" in Abadi magazine, year 19, number 64, page 123-125-126, deals with the proportions of music and architecture.

Fārābī’s specific view of music reveals the teleological importance of music for him. In his philosophy, music is connected with logical thought and political philosophy, and this connection plays an effective role in his musical system. The relationship between music, logic, and politics is established through the end of music. That is, the genre of poetry, as a part of logic, determines the end of music and also develops a relationship with civil philosophy (politics) in the course of this relation in the view of Fārābī. The reflection of such relationships can be seen in the definition of music, specifying its principles and source of its formation, types of music, and the classification and ranking of musical instruments. Given the final cause of music and its principles, which mathematics is not capable of explaining, Fārābī distances himself from mathematics when analyzing music. He equates the final cause of music with that of poetry, which is the same provoking of imagination to attain happiness for all. In this way, he emphasizes the imitative aspect of music and defines it as something more than a tool for entertainment. The teleological view yields some consequences for Fārābī’s general approach to music, which are the focal points of this paper.

Undoubtedly, the history of music should be compared with the history of human life; because for a long time, various types of music derived from the text of nature have been associated with human societies. Music in a general view can be divided into natural and artistic (artificial). Ibn Sina (Avicenna) was one of the greatest thinkers and philosophers who spoke about art music in detail in his writings and this has exposed his views to more criticism and comments. However, the capacities of Avicenna philosophy in expressing the effects of music on the state of the human soul have not been revealed much. The main question of this article is what the relationship between music and the human soul in terms of Avicennism-psychology is? In an analytical descriptive approach and emphasizing the principles of Avicennism-psychology, the author has come to the conclusion that artistic music, with its direct impact, targets only the vegetable and soul (sprit) in humans, and theoretical and practical reason (conceptual and practical intellect) also often indirectly exposes him to these disturbances with its excessiveness and deviant (exess and neglect) effects on these faculties.

Almost fewer poet, sage, or philosopher in the history of Islamic and Iranian literature can be found who has not mentioned the subject of music and hearing in his poems and prose works. Shahabuddin Suhrawardi, as one of the philosophers of the Islamic world, has a special view on music and Sama (listening). Like Pythagoras and Plato, he had a sacred and heavenly view of music. He believed that it was the sound of the heavens that was expressed through music. With this difference, Suhrawardi's view is more based on hypothetical questions and his states in the House of Music and Hearing, but part of the thoughts of Pythagoras and Plato are more based on the sounds of music and the content of mathematics. He also saw the hearing as a mystical passion and a means to perfection. He saw the soul as a bird trapped in a cage, jumping up and down to escape the cage, perhaps finding a way to fly and escape. Hearing is unique. For this purpose, with a mystical approach and in the light of the opinions of scholars and philosophers, an attempt is made to examine the position of music and listening from Suhrawardi's point of view from various aspects.

In “Critique of Judgment” Kant deals with Judgment of Taste and besides this, he also defines the position of arts by bringing examples based on beauty (fineness), agreeability and sublimity. It is exactly here where except for poetry for which he considers a very particular position, he cannot give a distinctive position to any other art. In Kant’s view, music has the most suspending position among all arts. For Kant, music is sometimes an agreeable art and sometimes a fine one. The Suspending place of this art appears due to Kant’s uncertainties in making decisions in examples he brings for the development and clarity of his aesthetics. For some reasons which are not among the basic elements of his judgment, he sometimes puts music outside his aesthetic theories. One of these reasons is “Transience”. In a part of “Critique of Judgment”, he classifies music outside fine arts because it produces transient mood, while he had never considered transience and time directly as an essential and basic element in his judgments. In this article and with reference to Kant’s own theory and review of what he has said on the concept of Time and also his ideas elaborated “Critique of Judgment”, we try to demonstrate that if Kant had adjusted his thoughts more precisely to his classification of arts, then he would place music at the highest position.

Mass media, especially television, due to their widespread audiences and deep influences, are one of the most important factors in the transmission of the social values and norms in new societies. Considering that, the "music" is one of the main and inseparable components of some national TV programs; it is worthy to study the reaction of the religious audiences toward the musical programs. Using a descriptive method and through observation and interview, this paper seeks to study the behavior of the audiences with the musical programs of the national TV, to realize the behavior of the religious audiences. The findings of the research show that, the religious audience reacts to the music in three different ways, confronting approach, conditional and critical accompanying, and satisfactorily companionship. Although, a wide range of faithful audiences did not change their attitude toward music, some tendencies have changed with respect to music. The National Media has increased the quality and quantity of music, to attract the maximum audiences and to promote singing in society, by imitation and modeling from the satellite networks.

Roman Ingarden (1893-1970) is considered as the founder of ontology of art. Having been influenced by Husserl phenomenological doctrines, Ingarden argues that work of art and aesthetic object are ontologically two different entities. The work of art is ontically similar to other real objects while the aesthetic object has an intentional nature which is constituted by intentional acts in the consciousness of the audience. Classical music ontology is twofold: on the one hand, the musical work is identical with the score and, on the other, it finds its concretization during the performance. The ontology of literary work of art is layered and manifests plurality of its structure. According to Ingarden, every work of art has spaces of indeterminacy which are fulfilled by the audiences through their aesthetic experiences. The audience completes these spaces through the concretization. Thus, the perception of the work of art necessitates the active participation of the audience in an intersubjective manner.

According to the moral and educational ancient history ofmusic, its influence on human morality is inevitable. Receiving the music, the viewpoint of non religious morality has taken its advantage as an instrument for training the soul and acquiring good human characteristics. However, it should be mentioned that in this viewpoint there is no place for immoderate music and the music opposed-to-human and moral characteristics and only that kind of music is considered which is in line with moderation and moral values regarding its form and content. Although the relation between music and ghina is logically general and pure particular, in Islamic moral viewpoint, the serious sensitivities which have been existed about ghina, have also stained the domain of valid music. This paper aims at analyzing the quality of influence of music on human sensual mood as well as elucidating the instrumental position of music in acquiring human moral features in morality knowledge.

Philosophy of art discusses non-artistic principles and basis of art, in other words, discusses philosophical principles of art. Although Islamic philosophers do not allocate an independent section on philosophy of art in their works, but they have sparsely mentioned points, among different discussions, that fit in philosophy of art, as it is in the case of epistemology and philosophy of science.One of the main topics of philosophy of art is the discussion of beauty. Islamic philosophers have special views and definitions about beauty. According to Islamic theologians, the existing beauties of this world are specific and imperfect manifestations of the absolute beauty, which is God. The second main discussion of philosophy of art is the role of imagination in the appearance of artistic works. Islamic theologians have elaborately discussed imagination, imagination faculty, the imaginary world and its effects on the appearance of artistic works like poems. On the other hand, according to the transcendental view of Sadra in philosophy of art, the root of art is known to be some Divine Names and attributes such as The Creatorness of God and 'His Being The Best Creator'. He explains that every human is God's successor and the inheritor of the Divine attributes in an analogical gradation manner. By creating works, depending on their capability, artists are also emanators of these Names and attributes. In addition, Islamic theologians have a transcendental view of representations that is intensely different from the views of Plato and Aristotle in this regard and is much deeper than them.