truth

While the significance of beauty and symmetry in science has been a recurring theme in the discourse of many eminent scientists, the philosophical contemplation of aesthetics within the philosophy of science has garnered attention only in recent years. This paper examines the perspectives of renowned scientists on the role of beauty and symmetry, revealing a spectrum of views where beauty is variously seen as a hallmark of truth or regarded with skepticism. We propose a psychological explanation for the scientific preoccupation with beauty and symmetry, suggesting that the human ability to recognize facial symmetry is an evolutionary adaptation. This adaptation's byproduct, we argue, is the inclination to appreciate symmetry in domains beyond the original adaptive purpose. Furthermore, the paper explores how portraiture often deviates from biological standards of beauty, indicating a potential to transcend biological predispositions. The final assertion posits that while the pursuit of beauty and symmetry can drive scientific inquiry, it may also impede the attainment of truth. Drawing parallels with artists who have transcended their biological inclinations, we suggest that scientists, too, might overcome these aesthetic biases.

In this article, Peirce's fallibilism as the main doctrine in his evolutionary philosophical system is introduced. It will be argued that he introduced a world with the great law of cosmic evolution which is based on Tychism, Synechism and Agapism that never reaches perfect regularity. In this evolutionary world, absolute spontaneity, which always remains in every law, creates new indeterminate parts, which in the evolutionary path, find more regularity and approach the determined state. Therefore, the remaining of this amount of spontaneity and indeterminacy in the world is the basis of the doctrine of Peirce's fallibilism. Peirce says the principle of continuity is the idea of fallibilism objectified. For fallibilism is the doctrine that our knowledge is never absolute but always swims, as it were, in a continuum of uncertainty and of indeterminacy. Now the doctrine of continuity is that all things so swim in continua. Then, the concept of fallibilism in Peirce is explained with details, and the evolutionary nature of fallibility is explained. Then, with pointing to some part of Peirce's epistemology, metaphysics, theology and philosophy of science we try to show that fallibilism is the cornerstone of his philosophy. In the end, it is emphasized that Peirce's theory of truth is also compatible with this doctrine. And since the theory of truth will play a fundamental role in any philosophical system, it is another proof of our claim. Examining the details of this claim requires separate articles.

The concept of the subject is very important for the contemporary French philosopher, Alain Badiou, and it is discussed in works such as the Theory of the subject, Ethics, Being and Event, and the Logic of worlds. Paying attention to the changes and developments in Badiou's thought leads us to the conclusion that his perspective on the subject has also undergone changes. For the first time in his book Theory of the Subject, he examines the concept of the subject. A time still under the influence of Althusser and Mao, Therefore, the basis of the subject is social actions and purely political functions and the ontological foundations of the subject are not examined by him. While, later in the last course of his thought, He writes the book "Being and Occurrence" with an ontological subject as his focus, and his attention to subtractive ontology leads him to a mathematical subject. finally, in the Logic of Worlds, it continues its evolutionary path, one we believe transforms the subject from a purely human and political awe to a finite and abundant part of an infinite truth in subtractive situations. In this article, while examining the above path, we mentioned some criticisms in this regard because we believe that Badiou's explanation of the subject contains flaws that are in conflict with the logic of subtractive ontology.

Focusing on Heidegger's and Derrida's interpretations of Plato, this paper highlights a line of interpretation in which Plato is seen as the origin of a philosophical understanding that dismisses the hidden aspect of Being and truth. Against this line, Foucault's interpretation of Plato and Greek philosophical practices is elaborated. Considering this interpretation, it becomes clear that we are dealing with two distinct descriptions of Greek philosophical practices and their relation to the rise of modernity: one that views modernity as an extension of the deepest meanings embedded in Greek metaphysics and another that interprets the foundations of modern philosophy in opposition to the basis of Platonic thought, seeing Plato and the ancient philosophical approaches influenced by him as an avenue for resisting modern domination. Although Foucault's project on the art of living owes much to Heidegger's ideas about care of the self and the work of art, it allows Foucault to offer a different interpretation of Plato. We show the methodological considerations that enable Foucault to present this distinct interpretation. To achieve such an interpretation, Foucault focuses on the practices of writing, logos, and truth as parrhesia in Plato's thought and Greek philosophy. Following Foucault's path, we offer an analysis of forms, Agathon, and dialogue that emphasizes their living, engaging, aesthetic, and political aspects. This conceptual and methodological toolkit helps us to introduce and develop an alternative interpretive line of Plato's thought.

Allāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī (Arabic: ی ائ ب اط ب ه ط م ال ع (categorizes philosophy into Divine and non-Divine branches, with Divine philosophy further divided into Islamic philosophy and non-Islamic philosophy. The divine nature of philosophy from his perspective is related to the proof of God’s existence. However, the distinguishing feature of the Divine philosophy of Islam compared to others lies in the concept derived from God’s existence. He posits that if Divine philosophy successfully demonstrates the proof of absolute monotheism (or applied and famous and known for all), acknowledging that God’s existence is pure and unbounded by any limitations, even transcending the notion of absoluteness, it will be categorized as philosophy pertaining to Islam; otherwise, it will not qualify as such. In contrast, ʾĀyatu llāh Jawādī Āmulī (Arabic: لی الله جوادی آم ه (آی perceives the Islamic nature of sciences, including philosophy, in a general sense (broader context). Islam, in this general context, means the pursuit and acceptance of truth. Therefore, one cannot issue a ruling (Arabic: و ت ,ف ی romanized: fatawā, lit.: a legal or Islamic ruling) about the Islamic nature of a philosophy merely based on the philosopher or philosophical text; instead, each philosophical or scientific issue must be examined individually. If it aligns with truth and reality, it is Islamic; if it contradicts truth, it is not. The central focus of this research is to identify instances of Islamic philosophy among recognized existing philosophies. This research employs a documentary approach for gathering material and processes it through analytical and logical writing, addressing the implications of these two perspectives and exploring them further.

According to the standard reading of Wittgenstein, there are two philosophical periods in his life. The earlier Wittgenstein, whose main work is the Tractatus, believes in a fixed essence of language and linguistic propositions. Therefore, other sentences, such as mythical or ritual sentences are meaningless and have no corresponding proposition. The later Wittgenstein, with his Philosophical Investigations, denying his earlier thesis, recognizes various language games. So, there is a place for mythical language games, though mythical sentences are not true. However, this article argues that we should also consider a third Wittgenstein based on his ideas on myth and ritual in his unfinished book On Certainty.  According to this third Wittgenstein, firstly, the language game of science doesn’t have the cognitive privilege over other language games, and second, we can talk about the truth and falsity of mythical and ritual propositions. This leads to a pluralism about truth.

The different approaches of scholars in the similar words of the Qur'an have led to the presentation of four main theories: Ẓāhiryya, Homonymy, truth and metaphor, and the theory of spirit of meaning. The theory of spirit of meaning considers the coining of words to be based on the spirit of meanings and is devoid of the characteristics of examples in their meaning. Therefore, meanings can be true in reasonable cases. Also, the similar words used in the Qur'an are used truly in immaterial and sensible examples. This point of view, which was first proposed by Al-Ghazali, has been continuously discussed after him in the works of the greats of Islamic culture until our days. Especially great scholars such as Mullā Ṣadrā, Fayḍ Kāshānī, and Allameh Tabataba'i have spoken about it. This paper intends to answer the question of how the theory of spirit of meaning is presented from the perspective of Fayḍ Kāshānī and Allameh Tabataba'i in terms of the way of expression, evidence of validity, and quality of adaptation. Analytical descriptive analysis of the theory of the spirit of meaning from the point of view of Fayḍ Kāshānī and Allameh Tabataba'i shows that firstly, they share the same opinion in the principle of accepting this theory and its elements, but in terms of the way of presenting and expressing the theory, the evidence of validity and quality of conformity in the analysis of the verses of the Quranic virtues, have acted relatively differently from each other due to specific interpretive bases.

The problem of predication is one of the important discussions in philosophy and logic. Predication means the union of the subject and the predicate. In Mullā Ṣadrā’s view, the criterion for union is limited to existence; therefore, his ideas of the two primary essential and common technical predications are different from those of others. These two predications were not efficient enough in explaining certain ontological discussions in Mullā Ṣadrā’s philosophical system. In fact, in clarifying the relationship between the real simple and possible things, he had to resort to a kind of predication that was in total conformity to the principles of the Transcendent Philosophy. Hence, he introduced a third kind of predication called the predication of ‘truth and defective, where ‘truth’ is the origin of the appearance of all things and manifestations, and things are the ‘defective manifestations’ of that ‘truth’. In this paper, the authors have examined the features of the predication of truth and defective that distinguish it from other types of predication. Meanwhile, they have tried to respond to some questions as follows: Can the truth and defective predication, which some thinkers view as a subcategory of the common technical predication, be considered a third type of predication? While some philosophers believe that this predication is invalid in relation to the active attributes of God and resort to a fourth kind of predication called the predication of apparent to manifestation, does this predication apply to such divine attributes based on the individual unity of existence? Finally, following a descriptive-analytic method and through explaining the characteristics of the predication of truth and defective, the writers demonstrate that this predication is a third type of predication that also applies to the active attributes of Almighty Truth in the light of the individual unity of existence.

This article is a critique of the paper "Why Miracles Cannot Prove the Truth of Prophecy?” (Anvari, 2023), which was written with a glance at the views of al-Ghazali, Averroes, and Mulla Sadra. For example, in criticizing the statement that “faith through miracles is the faith of ordinary people and one must believe in a prophet through intuition”, it should be said that since God has sent miracles along with the prophets, it shows that he wants people to believe in the truth of the prophet's claim through those miracles. Therefore, faith through miracles is correct. In addition, the strength of faith is not necessarily dependent on the strength of evidence through which one reaches that faith. In criticizing that “there is no correlation between a miracle and the claim of prophecy”, it should be said that a miracle is considered proof that a specific human is representative and messenger of God Almighty, so if an act is proven to be a miracle, the prophecy of that man is proven. Also, the statement that “there is no practical way to set apart miracles from non-miracles”, leads to denying Quran and other well-known miracles as miracles. In addition, based on the fact that a miracle is always accompanied by a claim of divinity and also according to the demonstration of Divine wisdom, it is possible to distinguish miracles from non-miracles. The author proposed spiritual resemblance to the prophet and also the examination of his teachings as means to verify the truth of an alleged prophecy. However, no criterion has been provided to determine the necessary amount of resemblance to a person. Moreover, even if this resemblance is realized, how it merely can prove the prophecy of a person? It seems that paying attention to the exclusive conditions and features mentioned for miracles and having in mind the demonstration of Divine wisdom can solve the problems in terms of how miracles can prove the truth of prophecy.

The issue of hearing of the dead is one of the important topics that has received considerable attention from both Shiite and Sunni theologians, with various interpretations being presented in support or opposition to it. One of the arguments used by opponents is the adherence to verses 80 and 81 of Surah An-Naml, which apparently indicate the impossibility of hearing of the dead. According to the exegetes, the dead referred to in these verses are metaphor for disbelievers. Considering the truth reflecting nature of the Quranic verses, there is a real and true relationship between the metaphors used in the verses and their true meanings. Therefore, applying the term "dead" to disbelievers signifies a shared reality between the two, leading to the validity of using the term "dead" in a different meaning (i.e., disbeliever). This paper aims to provide a new interpretation of the non-hearing mentioned in the verses by analyzing the relationship between the real and figurative meanings of death and utilizing ‘Allāmah Ṭabāṭabā’ī's theory of ‘coining words for the spirit of meanings’. Through the analysis of this relationship, it becomes clear that death means the absence of effects and qualities in a thing, which is evaluated in relation to any given subject. In the case of the discussed verses, a human being who is not responsive to truth and guidance (i.e., a disbeliever), is dead in reality.

Descartes considered thought to be something of which we are directly aware. He described an idea as a mode of thinking and believed that innate ideas form a specific category of ideas that are regarded as self-evident and clear. Doubts about them can be removed through a process of rational inquiry and reflection. Furthermore, Descartes made a distinction between empirical knowledge and deductive knowledge. Deductive knowledge is founded on a chain of arguments built upon necessary knowledge. This chain of deduction ultimately leads back to the most certain element in Descartes' philosophy, which is intuition. He maintained that true knowledge must be unequivocal and free from any doubt. According to Descartes, clear and distinct ideas serve as the criteria for truth. Errors, in Descartes' view, arise when we make judgments or form beliefs based on ideas that lack complete clarity and distinction. The principle of cogito (I think, therefore I am), which Descartes expresses in his book "Meditations", is considered the most crucial certainty, intuitive, and free from bias. However, according to the authors of this article, the principle of cogito, which is the culmination of Descartes' epistemology, is purportedly based on at least four hidden and questionable prejudices: memory, language, a rationality devoid of any possibility of madness, and the hidden unconscious.

The modern world, by entering all areas of human life and placing itself in the context of reality, has narrowed the field to the transcendent so much that it seems that no trace of it has been left in the context of events. In order to get out of the crisis that has arisen, Sadr philosophy is an efficient figure who has based his ruling system on principles and principles that before him were less considered as the basis of a philosophical thought. The substantial movement of matter and the evolution of the soul from matter to the kingdom, the doubt of the existence and degree of the soul, the position of the imaginary world as a mediator between matter and reason, the union of the soul with the active intellect, His love affairs are among these principles. These principles and foundations have caused a considerable effect and a different attitude in recognizing art and explaining the process, and consequently, have become artistic products and have drawn a plausible boundary between the real and the vulgar.Sadra's special attention to the presence of the transcendent in the text of phenomena, philosophical explanation of the illustration of imagination in the creation of art and its meaningful middle position, human identity, human resemblance to God in the level of imagination, the two-way relationship between human love and art and holiness The field of original art is one of the achievements of this attitude.

It has been more than a decade since the term antiphilosophy became popular; A term that Jacques Lacan, a French psychoanalyst, used in one of his seminars, and later Alain Badiou used this term and wrote books about it. Although antiphilosophy may seem to be completely against philosophy, this interpretation is not very accurate. Antiphilosophy is generally against philosophical claims regarding the category of truth. Against such claims that there is a universal truth and it is only in the minds of a few elite philosophers. Therefore, and as the third issue, antiphilosophy considers the lived experience. In addition to these three concepts, other concepts are the focus of antiphilosophy, and this article tries to address the most important of these concepts. Also, the nature of antiphilosophy and its relationship with philosophy are examined. We will also take a look at antiphilosophy in the context of the history of philosophy and see which of the thinkers had antiphilosophical thoughts in this context.

How did mysticism arise from books and traditions and become theoretical and practical knowledge in one structure? This is a question that needs to be answered by analyzing religion from a mystical point of view. From this point of view, religion has three areas of sharia, tariqat and truth, which have many interpretations, the most famous of which is the interpretation of Saeeduddin Ferghani and his followers. In this interpretation of the Sharia, they belong to obligatory rulings, tariqat to the details of the religious practice, and truth to the monotheistic truths, and just as fiqh al-Ahkam is needed to achieve the purposes of the Sharia, in order to achieve the purposes of the tariqat, the jurisprudence of al-Qulb and al-Suluk and the purposes of truth are needed to fiqh al-ma'arif. Just as al-Ahkam jurisprudence needs a mandatory understanding, al-Saluk jurisprudence also needs a logical understanding and al-Maarif jurisprudence needs an intuitive understanding. On the basis of Seluki understandings of the field of Tariqat, which is the result of Seluki ijtihad, the mystics started the Seluki experience; So, based on intuitive understandings of the realm of truth, which is the result of intuitive ijtihad, they embarked on a mystical experience. After this action, they described, explained, interpreted and consolidated those experiences with reason, which is the result of the consolidation of Seleucid propositions of the knowledge of practical mysticism, and the result of the consolidation of intuitive propositions of the knowledge of theoretical mysticism.

Nowadays, we have to rely on experts in many theoretical and practical matters. We consider them reliable and rely on them. To justify many of our beliefs, we have no other reason but the testimony of experts. Nonetheless, to trust the experts, it is necessary to recognize them and know their distinctive characteristics. In doing so, epistemologists proposed some definitions for experts and expertise. In this paper, First, we will explain the truth-based definition and then the justification-based definition and describe the criticisms of it. we show that the best definition is that S is an expert in domain D if and only if S has more understanding and ability than most people in domain D at his time. In the end At the end, we explain the five necessary conditions of belief, coherence, ability, efficiency and time.

The relation between art and life has always been a most important problem that philosophers have paid attention to. Martin Heidegger is one of the great philosophers that art has a central role in his thought, and so in this essay we explored the relation between art and life in his thought and by way of philosophical analysis, hermeneutics and discourse analysis attempted to find that what relation between art and life Heidegger believe in.Heidegger elevates art to a way of human salvation and believes that art can help us in the face of our existential problems. And, for him, this salvation can only be done by great art, that it can fulfill its responsibilities to human life.The second task of this essay was to discover and enumerate these tasks from the heart of Heidegger's philosophy of art. The art seems to have the following duties towards human life: opening the world, making it holy, understanding how to live, creating a people, freedom, taking it out of everyday life, making ontological differences, and giving birth to a meaningful world out of a meaningless and mysterious context.Finally, the third task we dealt with was how, in Heidegger's view, art could accomplish these tasks and in a sense save men. According to him, art can accomplish the tasks by thematizing, repeating, showing the other side of things, providing a passionate experience, paying attention to details, showing the simple and basic lines of the world and distancing oneself from things.