dowry

The rule of gharr is one of the most widely used jurisprudential rules, which has been much discussed. We know that the necessity of establishing a safe legal relationship is to avoid gharr. Marriage, as a contract of a special nature, needs to find its place in the realm of this rule beyond legal boundaries. Some jurisprudential texts have discussed the rules of marriage and the necessity of denying gharr in marriage. On this issue, there are three different approaches to accepting or rejecting the rule of negation in marriage. In this research, which is of "descriptive-analytical" type, we have examined the reasons for each of these jurisprudential approaches in the mentioned rule and applied these approaches to the ideas and opinions of legal and civil law scholars. We have also explicitly explained the issue of the flow and non-flow of the rule of negation of gharr in permanent marriage and intermittent marriage from the perspective of jurisprudence and law. . In these three approaches, those who believe in the limitation of the rule, their view on the validity of the rule of negation has more strength and power than other approaches. However, it is not possible to ignore the manners of the wise and the absolute jurisprudential background. But if we consider this rule as a devotional rule, the transmission of the sentence will no longer be easy.

The authority of father and paternal grandfather in the marriage of the boy and a girl is one of the fixed rules of jurisprudence. Failure to respect the interest and expediency of the minor is in the conflict with  the great principles of jurisprudence.Jurists believe that in marriage by guardian permission, the absence of corruption is enough. The purpose of  present research is to analyze the compilance of the minor expediency regarding financial relations resulting from marriage.

The research method in present study is descriptive and analytical.
Ethical Considerations:In present study, the authenticity of the text trustworthiness and honesty  have been observed.

However, it should not couple the  minor for less than the dowry or a minor for more than that, then if it is so and there is expediency that requires such a marriage ,both marriage and dowry are valid but if there is expedient in marriage not the dowery, it is clear that the marriage  is correct and necessary after puberty though  it is suspended on permission.

The guardian's action regarding minor's marriage should be in the line with  the observance of expediency and minors benefits or should not involve corruption and harm to them, that is if the marriage is not in the interest of minor or is harmful to him ,the marriage is not valid.

In verse 4 of Surah An-Nisa, the Holy Quran refers to a woman's dowry with the word "nihlah," which means gift or grant. In Islam, no specific amount is prescribed for dowry; rather, its determination is left to the mutual agreement of the parties. Any lawful item of value can constitute dowry, whether small or large, tangible goods, money, usufruct, labor, or services. A significant issue regarding dowry is the ruling on indeterminate dowry, which this study examines through a descriptive-analytical approach. The central question is: What is the ruling when the dowry is unspecified or omitted at the time of marriage? Based on Shiite jurisprudential texts and scholars' opinions, in the case of a permanent marriage, the contract remains valid even if the dowry is unspecified. However, in a temporary marriage, the contract is deemed invalid if no dowry is stipulated. The obligation to pay Mahr al-Mithl (equitable dowry), Mahr al-Mut‘ah (compensatory dowry), or the non-entitlement to any dowry varies depending on different circumstances. This study seeks to analyze these aspects using narrations and jurists' opinions.

"Gharar" means the uncertainty about a transaction that exposes one of the contracting parties to an unavoidable loss, and the effect of "disclamation of gharar" is the invalidity of gharari transactions, but such an effect is doubtful in the marriage dowry. The source of doubt is that from one point of view, marriage is not a real exchange. On the other hand, dowry as a financial matter is not considered the main purpose of marriage. In addition, there are also narrations indicating the legitimacy of dowry is ambiguous. Proponents of this opinion have declared that the rule of negation of gharar in the dowry of a permanent marriage contract is prohibited. But the second view paid attention to the financial aspect and exchangeability of the dowry, and considered the ambiguous dowry to be subject to the rule of disclamation of gharar. This research has been able to analyze the gharari dowry with analytical and library methods and determine its ruling based on jurisprudential evidence in terms of validity and invalidity; a problem that has not been paid attention to from this angle and suffers from a scientific vacuum. Based on the findings of the research, the rule of disclamation of gharar is also valid in the dowry of a permanent marriage contract, so that if the dowry is ambiguous at the time of marriage, the mahr al-musammā (definite dower) is void due to the rule of disclamation of gharar and the mihr al-mithl (fair equivalent dower) is fixed.

"Dowry" is an old tradition that a man gave money to his wife or his wife's father during marriage. The payment of dowry by a man to a woman has become an ancient social and customary tradition, which the Islamic Sharia, while validating and validating, has defined and valued its direction. Dowry has various functions in Imami jurisprudence and Iranian law. Based on this, the present research was conducted with the aim of functionalist analysis of dowry in Imami jurisprudence and Iranian law. In this regard, descriptive-analytical research method and library information collection was used. In this research, the types of dowry in Iranian jurisprudence and law, the nature of dowry in jurisprudence, the conditions of dowry, and the function of dowry in Iranian jurisprudence and law were investigated. The results of the research show that in Imamiyyah jurisprudence, dowry is considered as a quasi-exchange and also as non-exchangeable. In Iranian law, dowry functions mostly to cover the risk of alimony, cover the risk of liquidation of the family business due to divorce, compensate for the deficiency of the wife's inheritance and the wife's poverty after the death of the husband, cover the risk of loss of love and monopoly, cover the risk of custody of the child(ren), value The spirituality of dowry is considered as respect for the wife and the reward for the wife's activities during the marriage.

Determining dowry for women in permanent and temporary marriages is an affirmative matter in Islam, and God has emphasized paying dowry to women in the Qur'an. In spite of the fact that in Islam, the importance of a low dowry is emphasized and its aversion is high, in recent years, the amount of dowry has increased a lot, and this has created problems for men. One of the problems affecting the family institution is the dispute and conflict over the amount of the wife's dowry, how to pay it and increase or decrease it. In the marriage contract, the man is obliged to give money to the woman under the title of dowry, or as a commitment. finance. From the point of view of jurisprudence, there is no valid reason that the dowry must necessarily come from the property of the couple. Therefore, a third party other than the couple can place their property as dowry, or commit to paying dowry. This obligation may be crystallized in the form of a condition in the marriage contract. From the point of view of jurisprudence and civil rights, such a condition is correct, and the effects and rulings of correct conditions follow from it. The said condition can appear in the form of construction condition, preliminary condition and condition on the action of the third party, along with the marriage contract.

Addressing certain matters related to marriage, such as dowry (mahr), alimony (nafaqah), and the right of retention (ḥaqq al-ḥabs), depends on defining whether the marriage contract is commutative (muʿāwaḍī) or non-commutative (ghayr muʿāwaḍī). If the marriage contract is deemed commutative, it raises the question of what these obligations are exchanged for. Due to its unique and special nature, the marriage contract is formally classified among contracts and transactions, while in essence, it represents a social institution fundamental to the structure of society and humanity. This study employs a descriptive-analytical method. Initially, concepts related to the marriage contract, its commutative nature, and the obligation of obedience (tamkīn) are described from legal and jurisprudential perspectives. Subsequently, these concepts are analyzed from legal and social viewpoints. The objective is to provide a precise and scientific perspective on the relationship between the commutative nature of the marriage contract and its implications for the obligation of obedience. The marriage contract encompasses two substantive aspects: one relates to rights, where each party possesses financial and non-financial rights, and the other pertains to duties, where each spouse is obligated to fulfill their responsibilities toward the other. In this regard, two perspectives exist: one group considers the marriage contract as commutative, citing reasons such as the presence of reciprocal consideration (ʿiwaḍayn) as in other contracts, while another group views it as non-commutative, arguing that if the dowry is regarded as the consideration for consummation, the contract remains valid even without specifying the type, amount, or nature of the dowry, ultimately resulting in the assignment of mahr al-mithl (customary dowry) or mahr al-mutʿah (consolatory dowry). Proponents of both views highlight the effects of these perspectives on the rights and duties of the spouses. The author, by examining these two perspectives, addresses the significance of this issue.

The society's need for expert personnel and the increase of educated women compared to the previous centuries have led to the greater importance of legal and jurisprudential debates about women's financial independence and examining its conditions in the context of the family environment. In the verses of the Quran and hadiths, as well as jurisprudence and legal works, various works on this subject have been examined, but there are still some ambiguities due to the various aspects of this subject. Some believe that a woman's leaving home for any purpose must be with the consent of her husband, and some more mildly believe that in the case of a woman’s employment and the condition of its continuation, a man cannot prohibit a woman from her job. However, according to the women's employment policies in Islamic Republic of Iran, it is approved by the Cultural Revolution Council of It is hoped that women will be able to move in the way of securing the fundamental and major goals of Sharia in the shade of benefiting from special goals in the family and society. So, the question is, what is the necessity of examining the financial rights of working women? And what challenges dose it faces? The research method in this research is descriptive-analytical and the findings indicate that the financial rights of working women in Iran have been neglected due to lack of research attention and this issue can be examined in relation to issues such as remuneration, entitlement to a dowry and alimony. On the other hand, issues related to the financial rights of working women, such as restrictions on women's employment, women's employment laws, pregnancy, childbirth, breastfeeding, working hours of women with special conditions, have been discussed in this article. In these cases, it is also concluded that the law has made some predictions in this field, but in practice we are facing a double conflict of managerial behavior in this regard and we see that this issue is facing many adversities for women in the field of work.

According to the opinion of famous jurists and legal scholars, what becomes the property of the wife from the dowry through the marriage is the entire dowry; But after the marriage, the wife's ownership is fixed on half of the dowry and unstable on the other half, and it becomes fixed after intimacy. In case of divorce before intimacy, the wife's shaky ownership of half of the dowry will be lost and it is separated from her property and given to the husband. If the wife discharges the husband’s obligation from the dowry after the marriage, and this marriage leads to divorce before intimacy, the question arises as to whether the husband has the right to restitute half of the dowry or not. The findings based on the Analytical-descriptive method show that the proofs of the promise to allow the return of the spouse for half of the dowry are not complete and conclusive, and by referring to the jurisprudence rules of benevolence, justice, and fairness, the promise is proven to be not permissible for the returning of it to husband. Also, if we believe in the existence of an implied condition of the duration of marriage in the dowry, and we consider it as a type of contract, we can use the violation of the condition in the discharge situation (the condition of the duration of marriage) and give the wife the right to reject the discharge through the option of violating the condition. As a result, the husband must pay half of the dowry to the wife.

annulment of marriage is one of the important issues of marriage contract, which has important financial effects and consequences. The purpose of this article is to examine the legal jurisprudence of marriage dissolution and its economic effects.

The research method is descriptive and analytical and this research is theoretical. The method that has been used to collect information is library-based and it has been done by referring to international and domestic books, articles and documents.

Ethical Considerations:

 In this article, the originality of the texts, honesty and trustworthiness are observed.

Since the sacred law in not interrupting the financial relations of the couple after the dissolution of the marriage, has sought to provide the necessary benefits of the woman. Accordingly The financial relations of the couple are not only not interrupted after the dissolution of the marriage, but the main beneficiary of this survival is the wife, and the holy law has tried to ensure the necessary benefits of the women in not interrupting the financial relations of the couple after the dissolution of the marriage. On the other hand, in the case of annulment of marriage, if the marriage is annulled before intimacy, the woman is not entitled to dowry, except when the marriage is annulled due to adultery, in which case the woman is entitled to half of the dowry.

The lawgiver has not specifically paid the condition of halving property, almsgiving and alms in the dissolution of marriage with dowry, while attention to these important issues from the lawgiver's side is expected by everyone.

Among the rights of the wife on her husband is the right to demand dowry and alimony. Alimony is one of the husband's debts, and dowry is a religious financial debt right in most cases. Sometimes, in addition to alimony and dowry, the husband has other debts that must be paid to creditors. Apart from the doubts that exist regarding the priority of alimony and dowry over other debts, it should be consider what fate do they create for the husband's financial ability for Ḥajj, because the most important condition for Ḥajj is financial ability, and one of the issues that can challenge the realization of this condition is the husband's indebtments to his wife due to dowry and alimony. Regarding the hindrance of debt from financial ability, there are several hypotheses, which are: the hindrance of debt, choice and non-hindrance, and if debt is a hindrance, either it should be said that the obligee must fulfill his debt and Ḥajj is not obligatory on him, or that in this conflict should be preceded by the one that caused it earlier. The method adopted in this research is the descriptive-analytical method, the result of which is that although the famous Imamiyyah jurists consider debt as an obstacle to the realization of one's ability, the correct theory is that one is free to choose one's debt and visit Ḥajj.

The sudden increase in prices, along with the relative stability of incomes, has caused new problems for many Dowry debtors, which has created new problems for the country's judicial system; Because according to the current situation, many debtors who are unable to pay the installments of Dowry, have again claimed liens and requested adjustments, and this has led to the accumulation of many cases in the courts and the increase in the number of prisoners who owe Dowry; While from the perspective of Imamiyyah jurisprudence, imprisoning a Muslim who is unable to pay his debt due to poverty has absolutely no merit. This requires that the nature of the seal and its essential difference from other debts should be carefully examined by jurisprudence. However, according to Article 22 of the Family Support Law, if the amount of the dowry at the time of the marriage is one hundred and ten coins of the full spring of freedom or its equivalent, its collection is subject to the provisions of Article 3 of the Law on the Execution of Financial Convictions, and according to the prevailing judicial practice, the burden of proof of debt is on is even This is despite the fact that according to the capacity of Imami jurisprudence, it can be proved: firstly, the dowry religion is different from other debts due to the difference of the principle of the marriage contract with other status contracts; Secondly, the requirement of the spouse's ability to pay is also a very important point that can be used in Iranian law. In this article, in which the inference method is analytical-descriptive, we have tried to use the above items to help strengthen the family and provide solutions to solve the problem of dowry cases.

Ratifying a bill in the Judicial Commission of Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majlis) on setting registration fee of Dowry over 14 gold coins in the time of registering marriage contract (Nikah), each spouse 50% , and depositing it into the Fund of Providing Dowry for Needy Couples, has put the family law on the threshold of drastic transformation. Although this change is made to serve the legal institution of marriage and reduce the amount of dowry as well as facilitate the marriage process, but its functionality is under serious doubt and even it appears that its negative consequences far outweigh any positives. Bills ratified without considering the rights of the parties in the marriage contract not only could provide a platform for men to abuse but also create unfavorable situation for women and causes girls and women as well as men be reluctant towards the marriage compared to the past. This is the fact that women may assume that marriage not only limit their freedoms, but also their life could also be faced with financial and economic threats. Thus, they gain fewer financial benefits in their common life and in order to get rid of a wrong and unsuitable marriage, they must sacrifice their ownership and sustainheavy and unfair costs. Therefore, it is highly recommended for new bills, while holding a compressive approach towards liberty and contractual rights, to provide the goals of the legal system and secure the rights of both parties. Consequently, the current study by descriptive- analytic approach and by collecting data from the library sources, while attempts to survey the fundamental and legal aspects of this bill, also provides solutions and suggestions with the view on the couple's legal system of in France.

Preparation of essentials for common life is one of the legal duties of man; However, in some regions, according to the custom, dowry is provided by the wife. Meanwhile, the man prepares a few items of necessary accessories for common life, which usually have significant material value, to be included in the list of dowry and along with the other items, is sent to the common house. In custom, such items are called Shirbaha. In the dowry restitution lawsuit, the court will face the challenging question of who is considered the owner of this property? The answer to the question depends on the explanation of the nature of the agreement. There is a difference regarding the nature of the Shirbaha from a jurisprudential and legal point of view. Some have interpreted it in the form of specific contracts such as gift, granted and peace, and others consider it in the form of a private agreement. A group has also interpreted its nature as a condition in the contract as well as an obligation for the benefit of a third party. These disputes have also affected the judicial procedure. Referring to the formats which is mentioned and according to the interpretation of the permissibility or necessity of the Shirbaha, some jurists consider these items to belong to the husband and some others to the wife. This research shows that the above- mentioned formats have obvious distinctions with the Shirbaha despite having some proportion. The Shirbaha has a special nature that according to its characteristics and the silence of the law, custom determines the scope of its effects.

Apostasy has special ruling in Islamic jurisprudence such as: marriage rescission. In this case a very important question appears. Does the couple apostasy cause wife's dowry cancellation? Alternatively, it does not affect it. The result of research shows that there is a disagreement in Islamic jurisprudence about it. Shafi'i, Hanbali and Hanafi jurists agree on that the wife deserves the dowry completely if apostasy happens from the husband after intercourse. But based on the assumption of the wife's apostasy before intercourse, her dowry is completely cancelled. Also based on the assumption of the husband's apostasy before intercourse, the dowry is divided into half. The idea attributed to the Maliki jurisprudence is that is apostasy happens after intercourse, paying the dowry is mandatory for the husband and if it happens before intercourse if we consider apostasy as divorce the dowry is divided into half but if we consider it as rescission the dowry is cancelled. Imami jurists also believe that if the husband or wife apostatize after intercourse, he has to pay the dowry completely but if the wife apostatizes before intercourse, the dowry is completely cancelled. They have a disagreement about the husband's apostasy before intercourse. Evaluating the reasons for proving commitment to pay the whole dowry with the assumption of the husband or wife's apostasy after intercourse and husband's apostasy before intercourse and dowry cancellation with the assumption of wife's apostasy before intercourse. Looks more reasonable to pay the whole dowry in this case.

Many rights and duties have been existed before Islam, and the legislator has confirmed them. Financial rights of men and women are also among the things that have been approved by the legislator, and the certain limits have been determined and decrees have been issued for each of them. Since rulings are subject to interest and corruption, and these matters are also assigned to topics; Therefore, the temporal and spatial conditions and lifestyles are affected to their changes and create the possibility of changes in rulings. Some of the financial rights of men and women that have been examined in this article are included: the topics of blood price, dowry, alimony and permission in financial possessions. In this research, an attempt is made to investigate the Shari'a rulings related to the financial rights of men and women with a descriptive-analytical method. That the financial rights of men and women are religious or subject to temporary variables, that the effect of time and place on women's financial rights and that the financial rights of men and women in Islam are compatible with the expediency of women today, in a way that is more compatible with justice and causes more protection for women's rights be made with the results obtained from this research, it is possible to consider rulings on the equal enjoyment of financial rights for women; Including equality in the price of blood on the soul and organs, having alimony commensurate with the dignity of women considering the progress of today's life, not paying excess dowry in divorce`s khol`a and also not requiring permission in financial seizures considering the financial independence that women have at the present time.

In permanent marriage, wherein the dowry of wife is defined as a specific and non-transferrable immovable property, and after the death of husband, it is discovered that the dowry belongs to another person, making a substitute for the dowry is put on the deceased's heirs. However, uncertainties regarding the valuation of the property and the extent of recoverable damages, such as issues pertaining to the time of property valuation and the possibility of claiming damages resulting from devaluation emerge. The current research, following the silence of Iranian lawmaker, by virtue of jurisprudential texts and using an analytical-descriptive method scrutinizes the aforementioned matters. A comparative study of the aspects and consequences of the subject based on the foundations and rulings of similar matters such as responsibility against non-belonging of subject matter or price of contract and unauthorized contracts, and taking into account other jurisprudential and legal instruments, it is concluded that the day on which the husband becomes debtor for the dowry substitute coincidences with the day on which the real owner of the property does not affirm the allocation of the property to the wife. Concerning the possibility of seeking compensation by wife, in cases where the due date is different from the date on which the husband became debtor accompanied by devaluation, only damages incurred by the wife will be recoverable in accordance with Articles 515 and 522 of the Code of Civil Procedure and are limited to those losses sustained during the husband's lifetime.

AbstractDowry is a contract. This contract is set out in Islam as a contract to be considered a gift from a couple to a wife. A large number of gold coins as dowry has become commonplace in Iran in recent years. This, in the event of a sudden fluctuation in the price of the coin in the short run, imposes a multiple equity obligation that is undoubtedly inconsistent with the contractual intention and contrary to the contractual intent. On the other hand, it has somehow triggered a cultural event, resulting from this phenomenon of unpleasant cultural consequences and the economic outlook on marriage and the marginalization of marriage philosophy based on the spiritual-emotional view and the subordination of spiritual attributes. Also, this phenomenon in Iran's current economic situation is one of the factors that increases the price of coins and gold in the Iranian market. In this unfavorable economic situation, the wife seizes the husband's property and economic capital to receive from that her dowry. It causes it to be shut down as part of the economic activity of society and this disrupts the public order of society. Solutions such as paired Commitment to the usual price fluctuation, the prohibition on coins being stamped highlights the need for appropriate legislation in this regard as the basis.

The code of “implementation way of monetary convictions enacted in 1377” in a stringent policy imposed the assumption on debtor’s solvency except proving insolvency. In order to that policy, in all kinds of debts, this code sanctioned the detention against the debtor as he refused to pay off the debt. Pursuant to the aforementioned, the code of “family protection enacted in 1391” in its article 22 adjusted that regulation about dowry claim. According to this article only the demand for to amount of 110 golds or the amount of dowries that equals 110 golds was included by the general system of the code of 1377 and the amount of dowry that is upper than what was mentioned was excluded from that general system. Ratification of “I.W.O.M.C enacted in 1394” and the explicit revocation of “I.W.O.M.C enacted in 1377” institutes a new system. This new system consists of the segregation between the debts that are preceded by acquiring property and the preliminary debts. The new system has reversed the burden of proof about the recent kind, in a way that about this kind, it has imposed the assumption on the debtor’s insolvency. Also, about the preliminary debts, according to this code, the sanction of detention is providing the proof of debtor’s solvency. By the ratification of this new system, permanence of the particular provision that is embodied in article 22 of the code of 1377, became vague.

Dowry or Sadaq is a financial obligation that a couple is obliged to pay when the marriage contract takes place. He is also obliged to pay it every time the woman demands after the marriage. Having property, being able to acquire the dowry by a woman, being known, having a legitimate rational interest and being surrenderable are the conditions of the dowry based on articles 1078 to 1080 and other articles of the Civil Code. In this article, the author discusses five types of dowry (gold coin, cash, dowry, pilgrimages and flowers) and states that regarding the gold coin, its amount is determined by asking the gold and jewelry union. In the case of cash, its amount is calculated in proportion to the change in the annual price index of the time of payment compared to the year of the contract execution, which is determined by the central bank, unless the couple has agreed otherwise during the execution of the contract, regarding the dowry by referring to an official expert. Its value is determined. In regards to pilgrimages (Hajj and Karbala, etc.), inquiries are made to the organization of Hajj and pilgrimage, and regarding flowers to the florists' union.