relativism

Contemporary American philosopher Louis Pojman has critiqued Ethical relativism in his work from various angles. In this article, we try to evaluate his critical view of "subjective" and "conventional" Ethical relativism by clarifying his positions and formulating his arguments. For Pojman, there is a clear conflict between the fundamental concept of morality and Ethical relativism. subjective relativism plunges us into the abyss of extreme individualism and the aesthetics of taste. conventional relativism also fails to properly address problems such as the definition of culture, society, and some other criticisms. With a detailed analysis, Pojman challenges the two elements of diversity and dependence, which are the two main claims of conventional relativism, and reveals its shortcomings. Finally, after examining Ethical relativism in its two important branches and thoroughly evaluating the arguments and propositions of relativists, he concludes that relativism is not defensible in its various readings. As a result, one must resort to objective morality that has a coherent and clear structure.

A critical look at human scientific and intellectual achievements has played an important role in the development of empirical knowledge in the new era. But if the critical view leads to the denial of truth and reality, it finds a dogmatic nature that contradicts the nature of criticism and destroys trust in knowledge and reason. Ashtray by focusing on the views of Thomas Kuhn, shows that Kuhn is on such a path in his work. In this book, Morris, in addition to criticizing the content of relativism in Kuhn's work, also pays attention to the psychological and social consequences of denying reality. His ultimate goal is to show that relativists, by relying on ambiguous language and misconceptions of empirical knowledge, not only destroy the common human logic that is the rational basis of the experimental sciences, but also destroy moral principles. They justify continuity of war and killing. In contrast to relativism, he defends a kind of moderate realism that is equally distant from relativism and dogmatism, and builds trust in science with the possibility of critique. In his documentaries, Morris often critiques the prevailing worldview and seeks the truth. The philosophical point of view defended by him in this book is also in line with the common theme of these films.

An in-depth look at what the Western world has done about disrespecting other religions in recent decades, especially the restrictions and barriers it has imposed on Muslim women's hijab</em>, doubles the importance of familiarity with human rights laws in this area. There is no doubt that Western countries are trying to legitimize their anti-human rights actions by enlightening public opinion through the media. At present, the observance of hijab</em> has been legitimized in some countries through the formulation of laws, and in contrast, in some other countries, the policy of governments is to decline the need to observe hijab</em> in society, and even in some Western countries, the policy of banning hijab</em> and punishing the people who observe hijab</em> is followed,  and they are trying to expand this policy and internationalize it as one of the standards of human rights. A clear example of the implementation of such policies can be seen in France where the passage of the law banning the use of religious symbols has effectively targeted the ban on the use of the Islamic hijab</em>. Hence, the present study seeks to answer this question: Can part of society be deprived of their most elementary rights, i.e. fidelity to their religious covering, under the pretext of observing human rights? Making use of the covering and the hijab</em> issue can be studied and scrutinized from diverse angles within the framework of human rights, but this study seeks to investigate this issue from the two angles of universalism and relativism and to analyze some documents at international level.

The goal of this article is to analyze and criticize the different paradigms of the western philosophy in justice issue. From the start of political philosophy in the ancient Greek, the concept of justice has been paid attention. The result of the theoretical and gnostic debates over the justice category has been the formation of the different mental-historical paradigms in the western political thought. It can be classified in three major groups:classical, modern and postmodern paradigms. But there are similarities and dissimilarities inside these paradigms. It seems that these paradigms have been criticized less by the extropective discourse. The present article has shaped around these questions:1. What is the most important distinction between justice paradigms in the thinking of the western world? 2. What are the critiques of these paradigms from the point of the extropective discourse? According to the theoretical approach, the research findings indicate that the specific characteristic of the classic paradigm is justice as metaphysics type and the specific characteristic of the modern paradigm is contractual justice and humanism and the specific characteristic of the postmodern paradigm is relativism justice and essential pluralism 2)absolutism of justice in the classic paradigm, materialism of justice in the modern paradigm and category of justice having no basis(unfounded) and being anti-essentialism in the postmodern paradigm are of the most important extropective discursive critiques governing the west world.

The main purpose of this study is to overcome the vulnerabilities of constructivism approach to history education and providing an alternative concept for student participation in this approach based on hermeneutical thought of Paul Ricoeur. The method of the research is conceptualization and philosophical induction. Findings indicate that constructivism in teaching history is vulnerable in positions like objectivity of the historical event and relativism in student interpretation. The metaphorical look to historical texts and the model of validation of guesses are the solutions that this article proposes. The appropriation of the world of historical text is also an alternative idea for active participation in learning.

Theorizing, as the highest level of knowledge, depends on a group of underlying factors in the theorist itself, his time and space requirements and surroundings. The main question of the paper is that what is the role of ethics (Including virtues and vices) and the firm characteristics of the theorist in the process of the production of science and theorization? With the help of descriptive-analytical method, that is, referring to religious texts and rational analyzes, we have shown that the ethics of the theorist plays the role at least on the three main stages from the various stages of the production of the science include: (1) problemology or problem-finding, (2) the science’s teleology or targeting, and (3) the process of the discovering and understanding the reality. It has also been shown that this role-playing is merely grounded, not more, and it has also become clear that this role-playing never implies the acceptance of the normative or meta-normal relativism about knowledge.

"Post-modernism" which was emerged in the secular context of West is characterized by emphasis on relativism and pluralism, negation of any certain belief and absolute value, contradiction with essentialism, belief in man's socially made identity, rejection of basing values on genetic realities, and rejection of necessary effects of acts on man's destiny. In terms of educational aims, it emphasizes on institutionalization of pluralism and strengthening the spirit of self-organization in learners; and in terms of educational principles, it emphasizes on avoiding dogmatism, struggle against systematization, and insistence on personal freedoms. In educational methods, it emphasizes on the learner-oriented discourse, serious attention to marginal groups, and negation of modeling.In spite of its advantages including the struggle against "globalization" and "scientism", and emphasis on "dynamism", this school has many weaknesses. The grave disadvantages are: intellectual dissociation, clear contradiction in thought, and inattention to realities, factual knowledge and fixes and natural values.

The danger of qualitative research methodologies falling into the fatal trap of relativism and null (non-existent) reality in an honest and worthy pursuit to emancipate human knowledge and understanding from the dominant account offered by quantitative methodologies is a serious one. It should be taken as even more serious for research communities who have just begun to practice breaking away from the hegemony of conventional methodologies like Iran. This danger can be traced back to the presumed dichotomies or the either – or arguments that are widely believed to explain the differences discriminating quantitative and qualitative camps. To overcome this danger on the other hand، it is argued that researchers need to take refuge in”trichotomies” that provide a space to define a third epistemic position that is as far from the illusionary position of “certainty” claim embraced by quantitative approaches as it is from the position of “uncertainty” or equal validity of all claims that threatens the well-being of qualitative approaches. The third epistemic position is referred to as “pluralism”. It is argued that pluralism، if defined properly and acted upon intelligently، could become the safeguard against relativism، most often attributed to findings of qualitative research or accounts of reality entertained by such research. Qualitative research، it is stressed، will gain much ground in terms of legitimacy and persuasiveness and in rightfully breaking the existing hegemony، if their agents are guided by the wisdom inherent in “trichotomies”. In addition to a theoretical remedy for the problem، the article proceeds to offer a practical strategy for researchers that، if properly acted upon، will attribute a rigorous status to research findings emerging from qualitative methodologies. The practical strategy explained here is referred to as method-boundedness.

The present study primarily exemplifies the approaches of relativism, skepticism, and dogmatism by the “elephant in darkness” allegory and then proceeds to introduce another approach called minimal realism. Although, Nietzsche denies truth in his early works, he agrees upon minimal realism in his last six books. Thus, this study attempts to explain his attitude in the light of the history of true world and perspectivism. Eventually, perspectivism not only is not equal to relativism, but is one of the major components of minimal realism. Despite the fact that minimal realism presumes different viewpoints in acknowledging the truth and hence, the necessity of believing in community of inquiry for understanding the truth, it is not equal to denial of truth and relativism. Finally, applying the proposed ideas to the philosophy for children, the study concludes that community of inquiry doesn`t lead to relativism and relativism itself can hinder the formation of community of inquiry.

The human is the subject of education, and any plan in this regards is based on a particular anthropological view. In this view, education, religion and humanity are always concomitant. The advent of new views in the theoretical and philosophical spheres, especially in the sphere of philosophy of education, has caused new challenges for human education-especially religious education-including the challenges of modernism and postmodernism. These views have been developed and reinforced through the process of globalization. They are unable to provide a stable meaningfulness for humanity or to endow human beings with freedom and self-sufficiency; they leave human beings in the boundless ocean of relativism and pluralism. The present article goes beyond these two views, introducing religious education with its characteristics; it introduces a universe on the basis of Divine Commandment according to basic assumptions of religious education from an Islamic viewpoint, such as the unity of existence, the occultation, and inwardness.