ایران

Financial inclusion is a concept that denotes universal access to quality, economical, and efficient financial services. In the past decade, the development of financial inclusion has been recognized and emphasized by countries as a conduit for achieving development accompanied by economic justice. In this context, this article examines the importance of developing financial inclusion as a strategy for enhancing economic justice in Iran. Specifically, methods such as microfinancing and supply chain finance that can improve public access to financial services and create equal economic opportunities are explored. Furthermore, the paper attempts to present a picture of the state of financial inclusion in Iran using selected indicators such as loan facilities, insurance penetration, and access to electronic payment tools. Despite the progress made, challenges still exist in the realm of financial inclusion that require effective policy-making. The capabilities of developing financial inclusion in promoting economic justice are also outlined, with results indicating that the development of financial inclusion in Iran is not only an economic necessity but also a social imperative that can help establish economic justice with an emphasis on Islamic concerns.

Appropriate financing of the health sector, in addition to increasing the health level of the society, leads to more optimal use of the resources and can save them in this very large sector. The purpose of this research is to explore the methods of financing that lead to higher effectiveness in order to improve the level of health status and more optimal health expenditures.
 In this research, after developing and extracting a new and suite model, the time series data of Iran's economy for the years 2001 to 2021 have been applied. Three main indicators of life expectancy at birth, crude mortality rate and infant mortality rate are used as the health status indicators. The results indicate that while the level of household out-of-pocket expenses is in a catastrophic state, financing through direct payments has the least effective and sometimes harmful effects on the health status, while financing through health insurance has the most effectiveness. Health financing through increasing in government health expenditures can be considered as the second priority for the health financing.

Due to the great collapse of trade after the financial crisis of 2008-2009, attention to the role of country financial risk for exports has increased. The country's financial risk, as considered in this study, is a measure of the country's ability to meet its financial obligations on the international level. The main issue in this article is to determine the extent to which Iran's industrial exports are affected by the country's financial risk, and to identify its determining components in comparison to other traditional factors affecting exports. Therefore, panel data for the period from 2002 to 2022 have been used in the framework of the gravity model and the maximum likelihood Pseudo-Poisson (PPML) method. Econometric analysis does not confirm the role of Iran's country financial risk in the industrial export supply growth. However, the country's financial risk conditions of export destinations are statistically confirmed as one of the effective factors in Iran's industrial export growth. The remarkable point is that the country's financial risk conditions of export destinations have the most impact on Iran's industrial exports compared to other classic factors of the gravity model, such as the real exchange rate, common border, and GDP per capita of export destinations. Among the five determining components of the country's financial risk for export destinations, reducing current account risk, servicing debt, foreign debt risk, and international liquidity risk increase the demand for Iran's industrial exports. It is recommended that export companies and development institutions consider the country's financial risk criteria when selecting and identifying target markets.

Changes in the oil price formula are of great importance in economic literature for oil producers such as Iran, given their dependence on oil revenue and its large share in their budget. On the other hand, the official oil price formula is a key factor in marketing and determining market share, and national oil companies constantly adjust this system according to changes in market conditions and competitors. The main issue is that in recent years, pricing experts have disagreed on the official oil price formula, so that the first group considers the aforementioned formula to be a function of the Brent crude oil price in the ICE market, but the second group considers the aforementioned formula to be mainly a function of the Mediterranean market index (the difference between Ural crude oil and Brent). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the official Iranian crude oil price formula in the Mediterranean market. In this study, two expert pricing approaches are evaluated: the first is the Brent oil price function in the ICE market, and the second is the Mediterranean market index function. For this purpose, using monthly data from 2007 to 2022, the significance of the aforementioned variables and some other variables such as interest rates and the Dow Jones index on the official price formula has been evaluated using the multivariate GARCH method. The results show that the Mediterranean market index did not have a significant effect on the official Iranian oil price formula, but Brent oil in the ICE market had a significant effect on it. Similarly, the effectiveness of the interest rate and Dow Jones index variables in the two scenarios have significant effects on the Iranian oil price formula.

The issue of energy is always raised with the issue of its consumption. Consequently, energy policy makers have paid attention to energy consumption. Energy efficiency improvement contracts seek to design appropriate mechanisms to reduce energy consumption by employing the creativity and new technologies of the private sector. By creating financial incentives, these contracts encourage technology owners to take plans to reduce consumption. Countries need financial resources for their economic development. Oil and gas can be one of the most important financial sources for countries. Of course, the degree of dependence of different countries on this source is differentFor this reason, oil-rich countries resort to foreign investors. Investors who have the necessary capital, knowledge, technology and management skills and also accept the risk of oil operations. Includes scattered production by investors. This research, using the descriptive and analytical method, considering the importance of the discussion of energy efficiency improvement contracts, this article aims to add to the literature of this field by studying the achievements in the field of Iran and the European :union:, and to learn from the experience of European countries in the flourishing of scientific reserves as much as possible. The country of Iran will benefit.

The aim of this study was to examine energy efficiency and economic growth on carbon dioxide emissions in Iran.The study was conducted between 1980 and 2021.The approach used in this research has been ARDL.The data from the research was obtained from the World Bank, and the software used in this research was the avivos software with version 12 to analyze the data obtained.The findings of the study have shown that: In the long term, the effect of energy efficiency on carbon dioxide emissions is positive and meaningful, and the impact of economic growth on carbon dioxide emissions is also positive and meaningful, as well as the results of the relationship of variables in the short term, and the results of its estimates have shown that variables adjust the imbalance error at a rate of 0.54 percent and tend towards the long term. Therefore, according to the results obtained, the hypotheses of the research have been approved.

In the present study, an attempt was made to examine and test the impact of economic growth on Iran’s economic welfare, with an emphasis on the role of income inequality, during the period 1978–2022. This analysis was conducted using the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) approach. To this end, economic welfare was first estimated using a composite index based on four dimensions: consumption flow, wealth stocks, income distribution and economic security. Regarding income inequality, two indicators were employed: the Gini coefficient and the ratio of the expenditure of the tenth decile to the first decile. The research models were specified and estimated based on each of these two indicators. The results of calculating the composite welfare index indicate that economic welfare followed an increasing trend from the First Development Plan to the Fifth Development Plan. However, economic growth and income inequality exhibited a fluctuating trend. The long-run estimation results reveal that economic growth has had a favorable (positive) effect on economic welfare. However, at higher levels of income inequality, the positive impact of economic growth on welfare diminishes. Unemployment and inflation have had adverse (negative) effects on welfare, while real GDP per capita has had a favorable (positive) impact. Moreover, during the post-JCPOA period (2017–2022), Iran’s economic welfare has significantly declined.

This study investigates the impact of government subsidies on economic well-being in Iran, using both symmetric and asymmetric approaches. Economic well-being is first quantified using a composite index based on four components: consumption flow, wealth stocks, income distribution, and economic security. The study then applies an ARDL & NARDL model to assess the linear and non-linear effects of subsidies on economic well-being over the period from 1973 to 2022. The findings reveal a significant decline in economic well-being from 1975 until the end of the Iran-Iraq War, followed by an upward trend until the Sixth Development Plan. The average index value increased from 20.9 in the First Plan to 60.3 in the Fifth Plan, but then fell to an average of 8 in the Sixth Plan. The share of subsidies in total government expenditure increased from 1973 to the end of the war and during the First to Fourth Development Plans, but decreased thereafter, particularly in the Sixth Plan.Long-term estimates indicate that both increases and decreases in subsidy expenditures directly impact economic well-being. However, the effect of subsidy reductions on economic well-being is more significant than that of increases, suggesting the presence of an asymmetric impact. Moreover, the analysis of the optimal subsidy level reveals that subsidies enhance economic well-being up to a threshold of 8.8% of government expenditure; beyond this point, increasing subsidies has a detrimental effect on economic well-being.Additionally, the study highlights a marked decline in economic well-being during the periods 1976-1989 and 2017-2022, with the post-JCPOA period witnessing a more substantial decline due to the intensification of sanctions.

Adopting appropriate exchange rate policies in developing countries is always controversial. In order to prevent losses from changes in exchange rates, monetary policymakers have always sought to find a suitable method for forecasting exchange rates. However, the political and economic characteristics of the exchange rate have caused complex and nonlinear behavior, indicating the use of better models in forecasting. In this study, the optimal exchange rate model was simulated using metaheuristic algorithms. For this purpose, from 257 monthly data of exchange rate, inflation rate, OPEC basket oil price and gold coin price during the period from December 2000 to March 2021, the data were first divided into two groups of training and testing. Each of the metaheuristic algorithms was run for the next 24 months with the parameters related to each algorithm. In each run, the value of the error coefficients was selected after reaching the stop criterion and finally the best algorithm was selected based on the highest convergence. The results show that the particle swarm algorithm had very good convergence in low number and iteration and had a more accurate performance in forecasting the exchange rate. Given that metaheuristic algorithms are capable of optimizing various processes such as time management, resources, and facilitating daily planning, this study suggests that policymakers use this algorithm to predict the exchange rate before planning in sectors.

With the emergence of Web 2.0 and social networks like Instagram and X, fame has entered a new phase. Digital platforms have facilitated the reproduction of the fame industry and the emergence of new types of celebrities. Through direct or interactive engagement with users on social media, celebrities have become intellectual and informational references for their audiences, altering media standards. These activities, which are inherently performative and interactive, have contributed to the expansion of celebrities' commercial and advertising endeavors, transforming the structure of global media communications. One of the emerging types of philanthropy in the world is the philanthropic micro-celebrity. While most artistic or sports celebrities seek attention or fame through philanthropic activities, nowadays, some Instagram users dedicate themselves to philanthropy and achieve fame through it. This research aims to analyze the activities of philanthropic Instagram micro-celebrities who have gained fame by showcasing their philanthropic efforts. One Iranian philanthropic Instagram page (Hamid Babri) was studied using Guy Debord's concept of the "society of the spectacle". Debord presents a reciprocal relationship in the society of the spectacle, meaning that everything that is manifested is considered good, and everything good will manifest. The spectacle is one of the defining characteristics of modern society, where all objectives lose their intrinsic value, and development dominates them. Therefore, the goal of the spectacle is nothing other than itself.

The qualitative method includes various techniques, one of which is thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is a method used to assess the saturation state in the data collection process. Repetition is the primary technique for identifying themes in this process. A theme is used to describe a structured, meaningful unit of data, which is essential for presenting qualitative findings. Given the research objectives, the target population consists of Iranian philanthropic micro-celebrities on Instagram. Therefore, by engaging with Instagram and following pages related to charitable activities, efforts were made to identify the relevant research samples. Accordingly, a purposive, non-random sampling method was employed. The case study selected for this research is the Instagram page of Hamid Babri, who has approximately 18,000 followers and has defined charitable and philanthropic activities as the core theme of his Instagram presence. Babri has categorized himself as a blogger on Instagram, which signifies his engagement in celebrity-like activities. All research-related data were extracted from Hamid Babri’s Instagram page over 20 days, after which the thematic analysis process of the data—including posts, long-form videos, and stories—began. Throughout the analysis, his page was continuously monitored to gather new and relevant data. In other words, to achieve theoretical saturation, the data collection process continued until no new concepts or evidence emerged. The thematic codes were identified and counted based on actions, behaviors, speech, writing in posts, and visual elements. According to the repeatability of these codes and in pursuit of theoretical saturation, the process of constructing sub-themes and, ultimately, the main themes was carried out.

The findings are categorized into two main themes: 'the expression of poverty' and 'the re-presentation of Instagrammable philanthropy'. The theme of the expression of poverty is formed by "presence in disadvantaged areas", "representation of disadvantaged/working children", and "representation of difficult living conditions". The fundamental requirement of any Instagram activity is its manifestation and visual representation. Accordingly, philanthropists must showcase many aspects of their activities to engage effectively on Instagram. Instagrammable philanthropy is re-presented through "material philanthropy" and "communication philanthropy". Philanthropic activities take various forms, including material and non-material assistance to individuals or groups. The most common form of philanthropy involves material aid, such as money, food, clothing, or daily necessities for individuals or families in need. However, new types of charitable efforts have emerged, including contributions toward building hospitals, schools, and mosques, as well as transnational aid and providing diverse services for those in need.

The results indicate that the subjectivity of philanthropic micro-celebrities is constructed through their transformation into objects of philanthropic activities or representatives of impoverished individuals. While this emerging phenomenon has expanded philanthropy and charity, it has also fostered a landscape for performative philanthropic non-governmental organizations. Ultimately, it alters the social and cultural values of philanthropy, which are rooted in Iran's traditions and history. Thus, a new form of charitable activity has emerged, one that serves the values of the "society of spectacle" and visibility while relegating other social, religious, and cultural values—as well as economic, legal, and political consequences—to secondary importance. Although this phenomenon has facilitated the expansion of charitable activities, it has also altered their foundations, values, and norms. On the other hand, when micro-celebrities use philanthropy as a means of attracting attention, the historically embedded social values associated with charity may be weakened. In such a scenario, society no longer engages in independent charitable acts but instead follows this celebrity-driven model of philanthropy. As a result, the operations of social institutions and genuine charities—those that provide aid spontaneously and without personal or media-driven motives—are overshadowed.

Maysam Musai Malihe Sheyani Ammar Chappi Nooshabadi Abstract Centralization and decentralization are two important economic approaches that countries have adopted over time in response to their societal needs. This study seeks to analyze Iranian society through the lens of these two approaches within the context of economic sociology and development. It considers both the current state of Iran and the potential conditions that could influence the country’s economic and developmental trajectory. To bridge the gap between theoretical concepts and the practical realities of Iranian society, development plans have been used as a foundation for data extraction and analysis. A key feature of this research is the use of content analysis to explore both the existing economic situation and the possible future conditions. This method combines both inductive and deductive approaches. For an alternative economic structure, the study synthesizes core concepts of federalism and free-market economy. The data collected has been analyzed using Maxqda and SPSS software, with tables and results presented and accompanied by detailed interpretations.

It is commonly known that the exchange rate is one of the most important macroeconomic variables whose changes strongly influence a country's balance of payments and international competitiveness. Exchange rate fluctuations affect the production costs of companies whose products have an import component. The manufacturing sector is also affected by the foreign exchange market and its fluctuations, as it interacts with the global economy through the export of products and the import of means of production. Economic policy makers should know how changes in the nominal exchange rate will affect prices at the sectoral level. This paper aims to examine the impact of the exchange rate on manufacturing prices both at the general level and at the sub-sector level.

The methodology used in this study is based on Bayesian vector auto-regression models. The data are seasonal and cover the period from spring 1996 to summer 2023. In this study, the BVAR model was used for 22 manufacturing subsectors at the two-digit ISIC code level and for the entire manufacturing sector, resulting in a total of 23 models. Before estimations, the data were tested to determine whether they had a unit root or not. In addition, before estimating the VAR model, the appropriate number of axis intercepts should be determined for the model. The likelihood ratio test was used for this purpose. First, the LR test was used to sequentially test the null hypothesis that the interval between the equations was not significant and the counter-hypothesis that at least one of the coefficients was non-zero. After selecting the variables and estimating the models, the pass-through of the exchange rates to the different prices was examined by analyzing the shock-response functions. Given the different effects of the exchange rate pass-through on the chain of price indices, the question arises as how the increase in the exchange rate affects the individual price indices as a whole and what percentage share this increase has in the individual price indices. They reflect the exchange rate pass-through. To answer this question, a method introduced by Farooqi (2006) was used. After estimating the BVAR model, the shock response functions were defined cumulatively. Then, the size of the cumulative effect caused by the exchange rate change on each price index was compared with the size of the cumulative effect of the currency shock on the exchange rate.

The results show that the price indices for imported and exported goods at the level of total manufacturing do not react in the same way as an exchange rate shock. The price indices of imported goods (76.5 percent) and exported goods (32.3 percent) show the highest increase in the first year compared to the other price indices. The effect of the exchange rate shock on the price index of manufactured goods in the first months is very similar to the effect of the price of imported goods. It reaches its peak in the first year, but, after that, the effect of the exchange rate on the prices of manufactured goods gradually disappears by the end of the second year. This suggests that the impact of the exchange rate on domestic manufacturing prices is incomplete. The results also show that the "manufacture of coke, refined petroleum products and nuclear fuel", "manufacture of medical, precision and optical instruments and watches", and "manufacture of radio, television and communication equipment" industries react most strongly to the shock. By contrast, the sectors showing the least reaction to the exchange rate shock are "manufacture of textiles", "tanning and dressing of leather, luggage, handbags, saddlery, harness and footwear", "manufacture of wearing apparel, dressing and dyeing of fur", and "manufacture of tobacco products”.

Conclusions and policy implications: 

According to the results of the study, it is recommended that the policy of stabilizing the foreign exchange market be continued. This is because the increase in the exchange rate leads to an increase in production costs and affects various industries in the country. Finally, it increases the price of products. Therefore, the continued stabilization of the foreign exchange market will reduce the inflation rate.

Globalization has led to the fact that today, in addition to playing a role locally, cities also expand political, economic, cultural, and international relations. With the continuation of globalization, the management of international relations of cities has emerged in the network of global cities in the form of city diplomacy. Considering its privileged position in the Middle East and Asia, Iran has a lot of capacity to activate diplomacy in its cities. From this point of view, the current research aims to identify and categorize authentic scientific research articles (ranked) by the Ministry of Science, master’s theses, doctoral theses, and authentic authored and translated books in the field of city diplomacy in Iran

This research investigated the studies conducted in the last ten years using a meta-synthesis (systematic) method. By understanding the approaches and nature of each one, he investigated the structure of scientific works, including methodology, indicators, method of data collection and analysis, and the results obtained to find the positive aspects and gaps. Analyze research. First, by searching for the keyword “city diplomacy” in reliable scientific databases (Magiran, Civilica, Jihad University Scientific Information, Google Scholar, and Samaneh Ganj Irandak), scientific works that had the word “city diplomacy” in their main titles were collected. Then, the initial review of articles and theses and limiting them to the valid scientific-research articles of the Ministry of Science, as well as the valid theses and theses of state universities, and their coding was undertaken. The inclusion criteria of the studies included conducting research and publishing the research in the Farsi language and in the form of full text. Among all the studies, 30 studies were selected due to meeting the inclusion criteria. A total of 19 scientific research articles, five master’s thesis titles, one doctoral thesis title, three authored book titles, and finally, three translated book titles were published in the period of April 2013 to March 2014 related to city diplomacy

The findings of the research show that the weakness of studies in the field of city diplomacy in Iran in the early 90s is quite evident, which has gradually increased the quality of articles, especially in recent years. The cities of Tehran, Mashhad, and Shiraz, respectively, have the largest number of research works in the field of city diplomacy. In relation to the specialized areas of works published in the field of city diplomacy in Iran, it can be said that the most published works are related to experts in the fields of political science, urban planning, geography, and urban planning. The most important dimensions of city diplomacy investigated by the researchers in Iran include seven dimensions of urban economy: urban culture, urban development, urban security, urban representation, urban networks, and finally, urban research. Also, the other findings of the research indicate that in relation to the nature of the research under review, the frequency of applied research is more compared to basic research, while the research review, especially in the last 5 years, indicates a growing trend of fundamental research in the field of city diplomacy in Iran. Of course, it should be pointed out that from the sum of the analyses carried out in a documentary and meta-synthesis way, it appears that despite the importance of city diplomacy in Iran as one of the most basic tools of decentralization in the management of the international sphere, and on the other hand, as one of the main factors of national and transnational development, the weakness of studies in this field is very tangible, in such a way that the largest number of researches conducted in this field is in the period of 1402-1396. This is even though very few scientific works in this field were able to be reviewed before that. The lack of a publication that is specific to studies in the field of city diplomacy in Iran is very evident. The interdisciplinary capability of the concept of “city diplomacy” has made it possible to use experts in various fields of humanities in studies related to city diplomacy. From this point of view, it is necessary for thinkers related to the field of city diplomacy in Iran to work hard in order to establish a special publication with concepts related to city diplomacy. The results show that in terms of geographical distribution, Tehran province (Tehran metropolis) is in first place, followed by Khorasan Razavi (Mashhad metropolis) and Fars (Shiraz metropolis), respectively, ranked second and third. It seems that one of the main reasons for researchers’ interest in conducting research in the field of city diplomacy in the mentioned metropolises is the significant number of sister cities and also the image of their desired destination, which, as a result, leads to the strengthening of relations in the fields that are different from other cities in the world.

The results of this research show that there are many advantages for Iranian cities, especially big cities, to enter the field of city diplomacy actively and within the reasonable demands of the national government, but one of the main reasons for the inefficiency of the city diplomacy system in Iran, especially in big cities, is a lack of independence in decisions by the local government (big cities); in such a way that all the decisions in this field are completely dependent on the international relations (foreign policy) of the national (central) government. On the other hand, there are legal gaps in the field of city diplomacy in Iran, and the lack of sufficient power to delegate sufficient powers to urban management to facilitate the management of communication between international cities is quite evident. In general, city diplomacy in Iran has not been able to use all its potential capacities as it should, and as a result, it has led to the weakening of city diplomacy in the country.

A key objective of sustainable development is to mitigate poverty through the enhancement of financial inclusion globally. In Iran, the development of financial technology (fintech) has made significant strides in the past decade and has potential for further growth, fueled by increased access to modern technologies and user readiness to adopt electronic services. Although United Nations reports have underscored fintech's potential to reduce financial exclusion and foster financial inclusion, there remains a lack of consensus regarding its social impacts. This article explores the effect of fintech on social welfare across various provinces in Iran. The research employs a quantile panel regression model to analyze the data, allowing for the identification of potential heterogeneity in social welfare distribution and recognizing how fintech impacts different levels of social welfare. The model's findings indicate that fintech positively and significantly influences social welfare in provinces with higher social welfare levels. As social welfare improves, the impact of fintech intensifies, consequently enhancing overall welfare. In contrast, fintech's influence is not statistically significant in provinces with lower social welfare. Understanding how fintech affects various societal segments at differing welfare levels enables policymakers to develop targeted interventions that maximize its benefits and mitigate adverse consequences.

Understanding the distribution of poverty within society—whether chronic or transient—is crucial for designing and implementing effective poverty reduction policies. This paper uses seven panels of data spanning different periods from the 1990s to the 2020s to estimate chronic poverty trends in Iran, applying two methods the components method and the equally distributed equivalent (EDE) poverty gap method. The components method reveals a lower proportion of chronic poverty compared to the EDE approach, which estimates this figure at an average of 88%. Over time, chronic poverty trends have paralleled broader macroeconomic conditions, declining from the 1990s through the early 2010s, stabilizing briefly, and then increasing again by the late 2010s. The EDE poverty gap method also distinguishes chronic poverty into two parts: the average poverty gap and an inequality component. The findings suggest that changes in chronic poverty are primarily driven by fluctuations in the average poverty gap, with inter-individual inequality playing a less prominent role, despite consistently comprising a larger share of chronic poverty.

Women, as half of the population, play a significant role in the development and growth of any country. The industrial sector has consistently drawn the attention of policymakers, with one of its key concerns being women's employment and the impact of related variables on their participation in this sector. In Iran, the labor market holds particular importance due to various economic and social factors. Over recent years, the supply of labor has consistently exceeded demand, a trend that is expected to intensify in the future, necessitating the evaluation and analysis of influencing factors. Moreover, the labor market is one of the four critical markets in the economy, given its profound influence on and interaction with other economic markets. The balance or imbalance of labor supply and demand serves as a crucial indicator of macroeconomic performance in any country. Given the importance of women's employment in Iran's industrial workshops, this article assesses the factors affecting women's participation in 24 industrial activities, categorized according to the two-digit codes of the International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC), fourth edition. The analysis focuses on industrial enterprises employing 10 or more people during the period from 2004 to 2020. This research derives the labor demand function by minimizing the firm's cost function, in accordance with Shephard's Lemma. The findings reveal that value-added and employment levels from the previous period have a greater impact on women's employment compared to other influencing variables.

In this research, the threshold effects of export complexity on the equal distribution of income in the country have been investigated using non-linear STAR P-models based on Zhou et al.'s method from 1371 to 1402. The research results show that the export complexity variable has a U-shaped relationship with the equal distribution of income. The export penetration index variable has two threshold values. In the first regime, when the variable of export penetration (Kd) is => 35.14658, the influence of export complexity on the equal distribution of income is negative and equal to 0.20 percent. While in the second regime, when the export coverage variable is Kd > 35.14658, the impact of export complexity on income distribution is positive and equal to 0.99%. Also, the export destination diversity variable has two threshold values. In the first regime, when the export destination diversity variable (Kr) is <= 17.98, the influence of export destination diversity is negative and equal to 0.08 percent. While in the second regime, when the export destination diversity variable is Kr>17.98, the impact of the export destination diversity on the equal distribution of income is positive and equal to 0.62 percent, and as a result, the equal distribution of income will improve by the same amount.