کشورهای در حال توسعه و توسعه یافته

Technological innovation is one of the key indicators for economic growth and productivity. Recent studies show that R&D investment causes technological change. However, this relationship is not always obvious and seems to vary according to the level of economic development. A large number of studies on developed countries confirm the positive relationship between research and development, innovation and productivity. However, in developing countries, this relationship is not always clear. In this regard, in order to allocate an important share of national income to research and development, developing economies need to achieve a high and sustainable economic growth rate or create an economic development policy based on new innovation. This paper investigates the threshold effect of medium-high technology exports on total factor productivity in 50 developing and developed countries over the period 2007-2020.

For analyzing data, panel smooth transition regression (PSTR) model is used, which was presented and expanded by Gonzalez et al. (2005) and Colletaz & Hurlin (2006) and is very suitable for heterogeneous panel data. Thus, Medium-High Technology Exports index is chosen as the transition variable. Following the study of Hammar and Bellarebi (2021), the general model shows the relationship between the logarithm of total factor productivity, the logarithm of advanced and medium exports (transition variable), the logarithm of trade openness, and the logarithm of research and development expenditures.

The results show a nonlinear relationship between the variables under study. Based on the necessary test results, considering only one transition function with a threshold value and two regimes is sufficient for nonlinear estimation of the model. Also, the logarithm of the value of the transition variable threshold is estimated about 3.0816 and the slope parameter is estimated about 6.4226. Research and development (R&D) expenditures and trade have negative significant effects on total factor productivity in the first regime on total factor productivity that this effect by crossing the threshold (Medium-High Technology Exports) effect for the variable of R&D expenditures becomes positive and insignificant. This result is consistent with the study of Sepherdoost and Afshari (2016). In addition, the results show that the influence of trade on total factor productivity is negative and significant, but its influence is lower than before, in the second regime. This result is consistent with the study of Lotfalipour et al. (2015)

Considering the role of high and medium technology exports in the relationship between research and development expenditures and total factor productivity, it can be said that developing countries in the initial stages of growth can increase their productivity by increasing the export of high technology industries, to a level of specific development, despite the very high importance of research and development in the development of high-tech industries. Only a very small part of the country's resources is spent on research and development, and the weakness of the workforce has reduced the utilization of this small amount of domestic research and development investment. So, the low contribution of research and development expenses indicates that companies do not have much desire for innovative efforts and the creation of new technology transfer capacity as a stimulus for the quantitative and qualitative growth of industrial products. This action has caused them to not provide new products and services and reduce their competitiveness in domestic and foreign markets.The most important policy recommendation is that the governments of developing countries should develop high and medium technology exports witch through their positive effects such as productivity growth, reduction of production costs, improvement of financial development and growth of innovation and technology, it is possible to achieve favorable economic growth and to improve the productivity of all factors. Also, the development of exports with advanced and medium technology and knowledge-based production will initially attract educated and specialized unemployed people, and with the improvement of management practices, the productivity of production factors and the level of technology will increase and lead to product innovation. Therefore, considering the importance of exporting with advanced and medium technology and knowledge-based production, it is suggested that the universities move towards the third generation university, in which case the chain of knowledge to technology will be completed in the university and the university will support the industries by developing the latest technologies. It is also suggested that in order to improve their competitiveness in the international arena and to advance their development goals, developing countries allocate a greater share of their income resources to research and development and create incentives for researchers in various economic sectors, especially in industries with technological capabilities, and move more towards the knowledge-based economy and the implementation of research policies based on innovation.

Research and development (R&D) as one of the inputs of innovation can increase firm's productivity through improving product quality or reducing average cost of production, and can have a positive effect on firm's profitability. So, the country's economic success, is that manufacturing firms that are innovative and produce goods that have the power to compete with similar foreign goods. Therefore, the aim of this study is to answer the question of what factors determine the firm's investment in research and development. For this purpose, both developed and developing countries have been selected to investigate determinants of their business enterprise research and development (BERD based on panel data approach using the 2SLS (two-stage least squares) method during the period 1995-2012. In this study, endogeneity of intellectual property rights are considered. Estimation results indicate a positive and significant effect of intellectual property rights, and university R&D intensity on business enterprise research and development (BERD) intensity. Access to internal funds variable has positive effect that is measured with domestic savings to GDP ratio with one period lag, which is significant only in developed countries. Also, the exports of high-tech variable has positive effect and significant for both groups of countries.

Income inequality in the current era is known as one of the most destructive phenomena. Therefore، evaluation of income inequality and the emergence of roots are essential. Income inequality affected important factors which is undoubtedly one of the most important is intellectual property right (IPR). intellectual property rights May have two different effects on income inequality: on the one hand، with the supporting innovation to create employments productive and entrepreneurship، increase productivity and generate wealth through science and technology can reduce the income inequality and the other hand، due to increased prices of goods and services، and technologies resulting from the monopoly worsen income inequality. So، the present study with using econometric conventional technique (panel data approach); to evaluate the effect of IRP on income inequality in selected developed and developing countries during the period 1990-2011. The results indicate that، the effect of IPR on Gini coefficient in developing countries is positive and significant while، this effect is negative and significant in developed countries. Also، GDP per capita and economic openness have negative and significant effects on Gini coefficient in both groups of countries. Square of GDP per capita is negative in both groups of countries and for developed countries، this variable is not significant. In addition، the effect of the human capital variable on Gini coefficient is negative in both group of countries but it is not significant for developing countries.