crime

Today, with the expansion of globalization and increased economic competition, capital accumulation has been proposed as one of the main factors of the economic growth process of the countries, which can be provided through domestic or foreign sources. Meanwhile, inadequacy of internal resources and the need for high technical knowledge in some countries that seek economic growth have required a serious approach to this issue. Furthermore, countries with limited domestic resources are not able to expand exports and acquire shares from new markets, and they need stable resources to provide capital and their needs, among which attracting foreign capital is one of the economic solutions. Indirect foreign investment includes investments made by foreign natural and legal entities in the form of buying securities of a financial institution and company and providing them to the host country during a process. Due to the important role of foreign direct investment, the global market for attracting these funds has become really  competitive. Such competition has been formed especially among developing countries due lack of financial resources on the one hand, and the need for achieving rapid development on the other. Therefore, it is crucilaly important to identify the factors affecting the flow of foreign direct investment. As a result, the aim of the present study is to investigate the relationship between foreign investment and crimes committed in 31 provinces of the country during 2001-2021 using panel data regression models and unit root stationarity tests of Levin, Lin and Chu, Im, Pesaran and Shin, Fisher and Fisher.

According to the theoretical foundations of foreign direct investment and crime and the study conducted by Daniele and Marani in 2008, regression model (panel data) and static test have been considered to investigate the relationship between foreign direct investment and crime. In other words, in the estimation of regression models in the form of time series, it is critically important to check the stationarity of the variables, and for this purpose, Levin, Lin and Chu, Im, Pesaran and Shin, Fisher and Fisher tests were used in this study. The variables investigated in this study include foreign direct investment as a dependent variable and population variables, GDP per capita, industry index, degree of openness of the regional economy, infrastructure index and crime variable as an independent variable.

The results indicate that the test of the first model shows a negative relationship between foreign direct investment and crime, which is not statistically significant. In other words, with the increase in crime, the power to attract foreign direct investment in each province decreases. The results of the second model indicate that the logarithm of GDP per capita has a negative and significant effect on the entry of foreign direct investment. In other words, with the increase of GDP in each province, the amount of foreign direct investment attraction decreases. In the third model, in addition to the gross domestic product, the logarithm of the investment of exploitation licenses issued in each province as an industry index of each province has been entered into the model, which has a negative and significant effect on foreign direct investment. In the fourth model, the variable related to the country's infrastructure, which in this study is the amount of electricity subscribers of each province, has a positive and significant effect, and by entering the infrastructure variable, the effect of other variables is the same as before. The variable of the degree of openness of the economy in the fifth model shows a positive and significant effect on foreign direct investment, and it shows that the more suitable the country has for trade with other countries, the more the desire to invest in the country increases and the more foreign direct investment is attracted. GDP per capita variables and industry index have a negative and significant effect, and the infrastructure variable also has a positive and significant effect on foreign direct investment. In final model where the population variable is entered, the results indicate a negative and significant effect of the population on foreign direct investment. In other words, with the increase in population, the power to attract direct investment in each province decreases.

The results obtained from the present study indicate that although, based on the data examined in this study, crimes have not had a significant effect on the attraction of foreign direct investment, but the negative effects of GDP per capita and the industry index indicate that despite Iran's capabilities, it requires official and long-term planning to provide the necessary ground for attracting foreign direct investments. It seems that a step can be taken in this direction by applying the reduction of restrictions in the field of commercial policies, especially the foundation through tariff and customs policies and application of protective laws and regulations

Crime is a multifaceted phenomenon that has always attracted the attention of economists, sociologists, lawyers and psychologists. Many experts and economic pioneers consider it necessary to achieve economic development to improve the level of security and reduce crime in the society. Since the occurrence of any phenomenon is affected by various factors, the occurrence of crime as an undesirable phenomenon is not excluded from this rule. Various economic, social and political factors affect crime in society. Identifying these factors can help a lot in the correct understanding and appropriate policy making in order to control and reduce the crime rate in the society. Meanwhile, one of the most important economic factors affecting crime is unemployment. Unemployment is one of the most important macroeconomic variables, which clearly affects many social phenomena, including crime. In this regard, the main goal of the present study is to investigate the relationship between unemployment and crime and to identify factors affecting crime in the Iranian cities. The statistical population of the current research is the cities of Iran and the time range under investigation is 2016.

In this study, the spatial causality test was used to investigate the relationship between unemployment and crime. The first step in investigating the spatial causality relationship between the studied variables is to perform the spatial independence test of the variables. In the second step, the existence of spatial dependence between variables is examined. If both the investigated variables have a spatial structure and there is a spatial dependence between the two variables, then the spatial causality test is performed in the third step. In this study, the spatial econometric approach has also been used to estimate the crime model in the cities of Iran. In this regard, the presence of spatial effects in the model has been tested using Moran's I test, and then the most appropriate spatial regression model has been selected and estimated based on the Lagrange coefficient (LM) test and the LR diagnostic tests. The software packages used in this study are Matlab 2023, GeoDa 1.16 and Stata 15.

The results of the spatial tests show that both crime index and unemployment rate have a spatial structure and the spatial dependence between these two variables was also confirmed, so in the third step, the spatial causality has been tested. The results of spatial causality test indicate the existence of a two-way causality relationship between the crime index and the unemployment rate. In other words, unemployment was the cause of crime during the period under investigation, and unemployment also led to the occurrence and increase of crime. According to the results of the spatial causality test, the crime model of the Iranian cities was developed in terms of the unemployment variable and several control variables. In order to estimate the model, the presence of spatial effects was first investigated using Moran's I test. The results of this test indicate the presence of spatial effects in the model. Also, based on the results of the Lagrange coefficient and likelihood ratio tests, the Spatial Durbin Model (SDM) was chosen as the most appropriate method for estimating the model. The results of the estimation of the crime model indicate that the spatial lag coefficient is positive and significant at a high level, which indicates the existence of spatial dependence in the model. The positiveness of this coefficient shows that an increase in crime in one city causes an increase in crime in neighboring cities. Also, according to the results of the research, the variables of unemployment, industrialization, urbanization and divorce rate are the most important variables affecting crime rate. The results show positive and significant relationships between unemployment, urbanization, divorce rate, and crime. The industrialization variable also has a negative and significant effect on crime. Also, the spillover effect of the unemployment variable is negative and significant. Based on the results, the higher the unemployment rate and the urbanization rate in the cities, the crime rate will also increase in those cities. On the other hand, as cities move toward industrialization and the number of industrial enterprises in them increases, the rate of crime will decrease more.

The findings reveal that, unemployment is one of the most important variables affecting crime in the Iranian cities. So, it is recommended that authorities pay special attention to sustainable policies regarding employment and its proportional distribution in cities. Considering excessive growth of urbanization and its detrimental impact on rampant crime rates, it is suggested that statesmen and policy makers create more facilities and pay special attention to rural areas to provide reverse migration in order to prevent occurrence of various crimes, which are happenning due to population increase especially in informal settlements of larger cities.

Introduction :

During the last few decades, some issues, including industrial, economic, and social developments, village-to-city migration, and the growth and expansion of marginal areas, have resulted in deviations and social damages. Informal settlements in Iran, like many developing countries, manifest the growing trend of spatial inequalities and increasing poverty in cities. The feeling of security, as one of the essential needs of human beings, plays a significant role in the development of a sense of belonging to a place and the vitality of the citizens so the presence of security is one of the important variables in strengthening the human city and the identity of the cities. Today, social problems are considered as the most important threatening factors in the cities. Marginalization is considered one of the important centers for the occurrence of social problems. Due to the expansion of marginalization, the social-economic insecurity increases. Social deviations and criminality have become the symbol of marginal areas and facilitate the occurrence of crime in these areas. Overcrowding and excessive density in marginal areas, on the one hand, and the inferior culture of marginal residents, on the other hand, increase the potential of crime occurrence in the marginal neighborhoods of metropolitan areas. Lack of cultural training, low education of the citizens, their resistance to innovation, and mixing with the superior culture of the mother city have led to the historical lag of these regions. Therefore, despite several decades of appearance of marginalization and the change of several generations, the dominant culture of marginalization still prevails in these neighborhoods. The creativity and innovation of this research are to examine the relationship between social deviations and environmental quality and to determine the impact of environmental design components in reducing the crime rate in marginal areas. The current research aims to investigate the components of environmental quality and its impact on reducing social deviations in marginal areas in Maragheh City.

The research is conducted by a descriptive-analytical method and it is practical research. Library methods and field observations (questionnaires) have been used to collect the data. The statistical population includes all the marginal residents of Maragheh City. Using the stratified probability sampling method and the Kochran formula, 320 people were chosen as the sample of the study. Eighteen variables were used to evaluate the role of environmental quality in social deviations. The studied area in this research is the marginal areas of Maragheh city, including Anzab, Mikael-Abad, Zeinal-Abad, and Pahrabad. In the analysis of the data, SPSS software, chi-squared test (x2) as well as Simple Linear Regression test were used. In univariate regression, the changes of an independent variable on the dependent variable were evaluated. Considering that, there is an independent variable (environmental quality) and a dependent variable (social deviations) in this research, the univariate (simple) regression test was used. To determine the factors of the environmental quality scale and summarize the main factors of crime occurrence, the exploratory factor analysis model was used.

The analysis of the field study shows that the environmental quality in the marginal areas of Maragheh city suffers from some problems and it is largely lower than the average level. To test the impact of environmental quality on social deviations in marginal areas, an univariate regression test was used (Sig= 0.000; Beta= 0.32). it means that each unit of increase in the unfavorable state of environmental quality leads to a 0.32 increase in social deviations. The results of the univariate regression test indicate that with each unit increase in the unfavorable condition of environmental quality, social deviations increase by 32%. According to the results of exploratory factor analysis of the environmental quality variable, 3 factors were extracted after Varimax rotation. In this study, the impact of environmental quality on social deviations in marginalized areas was confirmed. However, no significant relationship was found between age and social deviations in marginalized areas, and also there was not any significant difference between social deviations in marginalized areas based on the gender of the subjects. Therefore, it can be concluded that the quality of the environment has a relatively equal effect on the social deviations of the residents, while gender or age cannot be considered as factors affecting the social deviations of the residents of the marginal areas and it is necessary to improve the environmental quality of the marginal areas and increase the required facilities as well as reduce the harmful factors.

According to the results of the factor analysis, three factors, including the functional-service factor, density and the space presence factor, and physical–user factor reduce the crime occurrence in the marginal areas. The results of the univariate regression test indicate that with each unit increase in the unfavorable condition of environmental quality, social deviations increase by 32%. In the marginal areas of Maragheh City, unemployment, violence, and the commission of various crimes, including murder, poverty, and addiction, show a high rate. The results of the research show that with urban planning and design, including the development of public spaces, renovation of houses, widening the passages, giving services, good night lighting, the establishment of some state offices in these areas, desirable public transportation and adaptation of urban furniture will encourage the residents to go to the public spaces and help to ensure the security of these areas.

Introduction With the increase in population and the rapid expansion of urbanization and the physical development of cities, especially in metropolises, the issue of environmental security, especially in urban areas, has received much attention. Public urban spaces within metropolitan areas are also among the spaces that potentially cause some crimes and social damages like theft, conflict, and addiction, especially if the principles of environmental design are not observed in the design of such spaces. In the metropolis of Tehran, there is also a problem of lack and weakness of security in urban spaces in some of its neighborhoods. Dilapidated physical structures, dilapidated or under-construction houses, many narrow and dead-end and covered passages in the neighborhood on the one hand, and low population concentration, especially after the closing of the market, and low public supervision in some neighborhoods of Tehran, on the other hand, has created the basis for social problems and unsafe places. Many theories and approaches have been proposed by urban theorists to face this problem and create a safe urban space. One of the most important ideas presented in this regard is crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED). This approach, which considers social factors in its designs along with physical factors, provides grounds for removing or adjusting criminal and blind spots and by increasing the level of social support and supervision, it helps to increase the level of security in the neighborhood. The current research has been carried out to redesign unsafe urban public spaces, emphasizing the environmental design approach in neighborhoods with low security.Materials and MethodsThe present research is considered quantitative-qualitative research. Based on the type, it is considered as applied research, and based on the method, it is considered as descriptive-analytical research. In this research, six dimensions (supervision, management and maintenance, activity support, structure, access and movement, and sense of ownership) have been measured in the form of 11 indicators at the neighborhood level. The method of data collection was document-field. The tools of data collection were a researcher-made questionnaire, in-depth field observations, interviews, and photography of the desired urban spaces. The statistical population of the research was a combination of residents (384 people based on Cochran’s formula) and specialists in the field of urban planning (30 people). The analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method has been used to weight research criteria and classify localities. After identifying the unsafe neighborhood using the qualitative method, unsafe urban spaces have been identified, and based on the features of environmental design through the method of analysis and morphology (morphological analysis), unsafe spaces have been redesigned.FindingsFrom the perspective of the research expert community, the criterion of supporting activities with a score of 0.266 has the highest score and the criterion of sense of ownership with a score of 0.085 is the least important. Also, the criteria of neighborhood structure, access and movement, supervision and management, and maintenance have received scores of 0.207, 0.168, 0.145, and 0.130 respectively. The analysis of the data collected at the sample neighborhood level determined that the Narmak neighborhood was ranked 0.543, 0.469, 0.493, and 0.450 respectively in the four dimensions of neighborhood structure, supervision, sense of ownership, and management and maintenance. It has won first place in the issue of environmental security of urban spaces. In the body of Narmak Squares, there is no sign of extraneous corners, and the short and readable dead-ends have given the bodies of these spaces good visibility. According to what was obtained from the model, Narmak, North Kargar, Bagh Shater, and Sangalj neighborhoods are ranked first to fourth with scores of 0.393, 0.330, 0.221, and 0.056 respectively. Therefore, Narmak neighborhood has been evaluated as the safest neighborhood, and the Sangalaj neighborhood in the central part of Tehran as the most unsafe neighborhood. The walls of the Sangalj neighborhood are very active due to their proximity to the market, and this neighborhood has caused much non-local traffic to the neighborhood during the day, and this point reduces the security of the neighborhood. To better identify the alleys and unsafe spaces in the Sangalj neighborhood, the designed area was divided into three zones: East, North-West, and South-West. In the eastern zone, features such as the lack of supervision on the alleys, the presence of warehouses, the absence of residents, and the lack of sense of belonging and responsibility of the residents towards the presence of vulnerable groups can be seen. In the northwest area, there have been features like a lack of light lighting, unsafe corners, and indentations caused by the setback of buildings in the alleys. Also, in the southwest zone, features like the increase in the presence of drug dealers in the Tarkhani market at night (when it is closed), the use of drugs openly at the beginning of alleys, and other similar cases can be seen. Khals Alley in area number two of the eastern zone and Hamami Alley in area number one of the northwest zones have been chosen for the design and implementation of ideas due to their location and insecurity. Keeping the old entrance as the entrance to the bathroom alley, turning the corners and hangouts of drug addicts into craft stalls and cultural stalls, and improving the entrances and walls of the shops on Shishegaran Street are some of the design ideas of this unsafe urban space. Repairing the walls and arranging the facades of the buildings, removing visual excesses in the walls to eliminate the confusion of the facades in the space, demolishing the dilapidated building to create openness, and designing the carpet gallery cafe due to its proximity to the carpet shops, installing a security kiosk (to strengthen the observer’s eye) at the entrance Gallery cafe and... are some of the points that can be seen in the proposed designs to improve the environmental security of Khals alley.ConclusionThe results of the comparative comparison of the studied neighborhoods showed that the Narmak neighborhood in the east of Tehran (District 8) was the safest neighborhood and the Sangalaj neighborhood in the central part of Tehran (District 12) was evaluated as the most unsafe neighborhood in the eyes of the residents. This comparison allows us to review and compare the principles of CPTED in all neighborhoods, use the positive points in safe neighborhoods, and provide lessons to make Sangalj neighborhood safer. The results showed that there are about 20 unsafe situations or spaces in the Sangalj neighborhood, the most important features of which are open alleys and the easy possibility of criminals to escape, unsafe corners caused by the setback of buildings, lack of light and lamp-pointed out, the lack of retail or any related use that seeks greater presence and security, the presence of cardboard sleeping quarters and groups of criminals and drug addicts in some routes. Finally, the current research confirms the results of previous studies regarding the existence of unsafe urban spaces in some localities and the effective use of crime prevention approach criteria in the redesign of unsafe urban spaces. In addition, it is important to mention that securing urban areas, especially in the central part of cities, is not possible only with physical measures and design, but also requires social, policy, and management measures.

Nowadays, in the main centers of the city, the security index has been given a lot of attention as an effective factor in vitality and nightlife; But some urban spaces with tourism potential have received less attention. The present research has a developmental-applied nature and the research method is a combination of correlation and survey, and the data collection method is based on library methods, personal observations, and field survey. Data analysis has been done with Grapher software, Geographical Information System, Visio, Excel, View, AutoCAD, and the Prometheus model. Also, the research aims to investigate the role of urban night space in the crime of Abadan city. This goal has been studied in 3 social, physical, and visual dimensions. The results of the research show that none of the existing criteria is in the ideal condition because none of the final rankings are close to one. The closest statistic to one is 0.31 away from the number one. According to the evaluations, the guard kiosk and official supervision are of higher importance in the eyes of individuals. In Arvand coastline, due to the low physical quality, disconnection of physical connection and contrast and continuity of the environment, poor accessibility, rigid and silent walls, there is a decrease in attendance, especially at night, which has reduced the security of this urban space of Abadan.

Housing costs are one of the factors affecting on crime and income inequality. Increasing housing costs will reduce purchasing power and increase inequality, which will have heavy economic burden and psychological pressure on households and they may choose economic crimes to earn money to cover housing costs. In this study, the time period is from 2009 to 2020 and the quantile panel data regression model has been used to investigate the asymmetric effects of increasing housing costs on income inequality and crime rates in the provinces of Iran. The results show that increasing housing costs (increasing housing prices and rents) has increased income inequality and increased crime in the provinces of Iran. Other results of the study include a negative and significant effect of GDP per capita on income inequality and crime rates. According to the results, increasing migration rates has increased income inequality and increased crime; On the other hand, increasing employment rates have decreased income inequality and crime rates. Another important result of this study is the two-way causality between income inequality and crime rate.

In recent decades, a lot of research has been done by researchers on the quality of government governance and the choice of the best governance framework. Governance is a broad concept that is directly related to areas such as economic, political, social and legal security. Crime is an obstacle to social and economic development. This significantly reduces the ability of governments to provide justice, health, education and other social services to citizens and weakens the rule of law. For this reason, strong governance strategies are necessary to prevent crime that hinders social and economic development. Many researchers have emphasized the role of economic factors such as inflation, unemployment, and poverty on the development of crime, but in fact, the governance quality of governments as the main custodians of economy and politics can be the main cause of all disorders, which has received less attention. Therefore, in this research, by using the FMOLS test, the relationships between the variables of crime rate and governance quality were investigated in the period of 1390-1398 in Iran. It is negative and based on the ranking and the impact of governance quality indicators on the crime rate, the most impact is related to the supervisory quality variable and the least impact is related to the corruption control variable. Therefore, in order to reduce crime, raising the quality of government governance should be considered by policy makers.

The primary purpose of this study is to explain an extended concept of human development called human flourishing using the link between economic and psychological approaches. Also, the paper explains why non-cognitive skills are essential. The first approach is based on the technology of skill formation, and the second approach is based on the theory of hierarchy of needs. The Human Development Index (HFI) is calculated using the Human Development Index (HDI) calculation method and adding an index under the title Crime Index (CI). Accordingly, in this study, 30 selected countries in the form of two groups of in the mentioned indicators are examined. The countries of the first group are in the list of countries with the best education system, and the countries of the second group are not in this list. In the first group, there is no significant gap between the two charts, HDI and HFI, and they have a similar trend. The CI chart also shows the low level of crime and risky behaviors and confirms the higher level of non-cognitive and personality skills in this group of countries. In the second country group, due to higher CI than the first country group, the HDI graph is higher than the HFI graph. Both charts have a similar trend but have a greater downward slope than the first group. The CI chart is also for the second group, with a steeper slope than the first group. Thus, the first group of countries has a higher capacity to meet their self-fulfillment needs due to the high quality of the education system and more attention to cultivating a wide range of skills.  As we move to countries with lower quality education systems, this capacity decreases.

The relationship between democracy and crime has long been considered by social scientists. The relationship between these two variables has been studied based on the three theories of conflict, civilization and modernization. The civilization perspective predicts that the rate of violent crime will decrease along with the effects of civilization from democratization. In contrast, the conflict perspective predicts that the rate of violent crime going to increase along with the brutalizing effects of inequality in market economies. The modernization perspective, however, predicts that with the transition to democracy, the rate of violent crime will initially increase, but as democracies mature, this rate will eventually decrease. This study examined the effect of democracy on violent crimes and property crimes during the period 2008-2017 for 88 countries using the Dynamic Panel Threshold Model (DPTR). The results of the estimates indicate that democracy will have an incremental effect up to the threshold and then a significant decreasing effect on crime. Thus, in the process of democratization, first, the crime rate will increase and then, as democracy matures, this rate will decrease, which is along with the predictions of the modernization perspective.

Crime is a phenomenon that exists in all societies and affects the useful functioning of different parts of a country. Also, Iranian society is not safe from the harms of this phenomenon. Given the destructive effects of crime in society, recognizing the factors affecting it makes it possible to fight it more effectively. For this purpose, this study has investigated the effect of misery index on the rate of theft in 30 provinces of the country during the years 2008-2018. In order to achieve this goal, the Panel generalized method of moment (GMM) has been used. The findings of this study have shown that the misery index has an increasing effect on the crime of theft. In other words, the misery index through the two channels of inflation and unemployment has destructive effects on peoplechr('39')s living standards and puts them on the path of committing crimes such as theft.

Money Laundering (ML) reduces the confidence of investors to the financial market, worsen political instability and deviates resources allocation to unproductive sectors by weakening of financial institutions credit. In the ML, illegal resources are entered into the legal economy secretly and outside formal control whereby it has hidden nature. The aim of this paper is to study the different sizes ML and its changes in Iranian economy in the context of latent variables literature using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) over the period 1360 to 1396. According to the results from paper firstly, drug trafficking and theft crimes have a positive and significant effect on ML trend. Besides that, economic conditions influence an individual’s motivation to enter illegal activities. Secondly, ML growth is associated with decreasing economic growth and increasing the volume of cash that waste economic stability. Thirdly, ML has an upward trend which based on it can be anticipated that in spite of crimes growth, especially drug trafficking, the increasing trend of ML will continue.

Today, the criminal liability of legal entities is accepted in various legal systems. In the Iranian legal system, as a general rule, this responsibility has been accepted by the Islamic Penal Code. Some crimes are characterized by the fact that the legislator has adopted a differential criminal policy in dealing with them, and the approach of the Anti-Trafficking in Goods and Foreign Exchange Law in dealing with the crime of smuggling goods and foreign exchange is one of the examples of the crystallization of this differential policy. Is. This differential approach in responding to the delinquency of legal entities has also manifested itself. The Anti-Trafficking in Goods and Foreign Exchange Law, in addition to Articles 67 and 70, deals with the issue of criminal liability of legal persons in the crime of smuggling of goods and foreign exchange and the differential response to the crimes committed by them. Of course, the law on combating smuggling of goods and currency in this area has many ambiguities, the elimination of which is a necessity to achieve an effective criminal policy.

The main keys that influence crime rates are examined from two economic and sociological points of view. Preventing crime is one of the requirements of any healthy society. Economic inequalities and unfair distribution can be the main reasons of crimes. The complexity of the relationship between justice and fairness on the one hand and the indicators of the distribution of economic benefits from the other hand admit the essentiality of the examining relationship between income inequality and crime rates. Recent researches have shown that income inequalities and economic discrimination are among the top priority factors that affect social crimes. This research studies the effect of various economic justice indicators on crime rates in the provinces of Iran.

Theoretical frame work:

Studies show that the economic situation has significant effects on individual activities, including crime. In addition, the feeling of being deprived of success and exacerbating this feeling in relation to successful people (the existence of inequality) can be a source of criminal behavior (Stolzenberg et al., 2006).People who are frustrated by their failures in their community become more annoying when confronted with successful people around them. According to this theory, poor people in a situation of high inequality are more likely to commit criminal acts (Enamorado, et al., 2016).The sense of deprivation can be due to various factors such as belonging to an ethnic minority, Ethnic heterogeneity, or income inequality. Runciman& Runciman, (1966) argues in the theory of relative deprivation that income inequality has created a sense of expropriation in one person and increases injustice, thereby increasing the amount of crime committed by increasing inequality of income (Rufrancos et al., 2013). Economic and social inequalities increase the crime rate by weakening social integration and increasing the social class gap (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2010).

Choe (2008) shows that the amount of crime in the past period has a great effect on the crimes of the current period. Therefore, to test the hypotheses, the GMM Arellano and Bond (1991) method is used to estimate the model. The following models are estimated for 28 provinces of Iran during the period 2000-2015.Where  is the number of crimes divided by province population,  represents the Gini coefficient,  is discrimination indicator from a capacity viewpoint,  is discrimination indicator from a need viewpoint and  is the average of  and .Economic discrimination index is the province's current and capital government budget divided by the capacity share (population, value-added, and area), and share of needs (unemployment rate, illiteracy rate, and life expectancy) of each province[1].  expresses the unemployment rate,  is per capita GDP,  is government size (division of provincial government expenditures on provincial GDP)  and  is the urbanization rate (urban population divided by the total population).
 

The results of the estimation of regression models are presented in Table 1.The results indicated in Table 1 show that the effect of all indicators of economic inequality on crime is positive and significant. The effect of the unemployment rate and GDP per capita on crime is positive and significant in all four estimated models. The effect of government size on the crime rate is negative and significant in models 2-4. That means government spending has been increasing welfare and reducing inequality. The impact of urbanization rates on crime in all models is positive and significant. Results show that the impact of migrations to cities and the marginalization of households increase crime. The causality test also shows that all indicators of economic inequality are the statistical cause of crime, but there is no inverse relationship.
 

Conclusions and Suggestions:

The results show that there is a statistically significant relationship between crime and economic inequalities. Also, causality shows that in addition to statistical relationship, causality relationship also exists. Hence, reducing income inequality and economic discrimination is needed to reduce crime. Economic discrimination of government spending can also increase the rate of crime in the provinces. Therefore, governments should realize that the discriminatory spending of governments, in needs and talents viewpoint, can in addition to slow down economic progress, lead to social harms.The results show that government size had a negative impact on the crime rate. The relationship between unemployment and crime also indicates the importance of reducing unemployment in reducing crime rates. It seems that the positive relationship between economic growth and the crime rate was due to an increase in crime benefits because of rising incomes, and because the wealthy regions are due to the opportunities available for theft (which constitute a large amount of total crime) will attract more criminals (Khan et al., 2015). Finally, increasing the urbanization rate increases the crime rate. Immigration and marginalization of cities seem to have a damaging effect on the health of the community.

According to statistics and evidence from the World Terrorist Database on the Terrorism Situation in the World and in the Mine Region, since 2004, the incidence of terrorist acts in the world and in this region has risen sharply. Governments try to increase the level of social security in the country by increasing their public expenditures, thereby reducing the crime and the terrorist acts. The purpose of this study was to investigate the dynamic relationship between public expenditures with crime and terrorism in MENA countries from 2003 to 2016 using the P-VAR approach. The results of the estimated model show that the existence of crime and terrorism has a positive dynamic effect on the general expenditures of the MENA countries. Also, the results of the analysis of variance decomposition indicate that the response to public expenditures varies by level of criminal activity and terrorism, so that criminal activity against terrorist activities has a greater contribution to the variance in these costs. In order to examine the dynamics of the model variables, IRF indicate that the shock caused by public expenditures has had a decreasing effect on crime, but the effects of this shock on terrorist attacks are meaningless, and this issue of inappropriate public spending In order to reduce the number of terrorist attacks in the countries of the MENA countries.

The extant literature pertaining to endogenous growth theory that underlines human capital puts more emphasis on the role of knowledge and education, rather than the impact of social damages on economic growth. Nonetheless, the spread of social damages, such as the weakening of family bonds through divorce, and the surge in crime and addiction in society, can affect economic growth by reducing human capital and productivity. On the other hand, a part of the spread of social damages is due to economic factors. The present study attempts to show the existence of an interaction between macroeconomics and social damages in Iran's Economy by developing a new Keynesian dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model emphasizing the role of human capital. For this purpose, a composite index of social damages was established, in which divorce, drug addiction and crime rates were focused upon. This index, on one hand, affects economic growth and, on the other hand, is affected by macroeconomic conditions. The results show that negative supply shocks, through increase in poverty, unemployment and inflation, lead to the spread of social damages, such as divorce, addiction and crime. In addition, increase in social damages leads to reduction in economic growth by reducing human capital and productivity.

To reduce crime, it is necessary to study the reasons of criminal behavior. A critical viewpoint in investigating environmental conditions of committing crime is economic aspects of environment. In this research the impact of economic factors on crime in Iranian provenances during years 2000-2013 has been studied. To do this, panel smooth transition method (PSTR) has been used. With Inflation as a transition variable, PSTR results show existence of two regimes and a threshold value indicate that in the first regime (low level of inflation), real income per capita doesnt have a signification impact on crime, however, in the second regime (high level of inflation), the impact of real income per capita on crime is negative and signification. In low level of inflation, the impact of income inequality on crime is positive and signification but in high levels of inflation, this variable has no impact on crime. In low level of inflation, industrialization has an insignificant impact but its impact in high level of inflation is positive and signification. Unemployment in both regimes has significant and positive impact in crime.

Societies have paid attention to safety. This study examines the relationship between socio-economic factors and crime, emphasizing on immigration. Due to the locational aspect of the data, spatial econometric techniques are used. The model has been specified in the form of Spatial Durbin Panel Data Model (SDPDM). The specified model has been estimated for 30 provinces of Iran in 2006-11 by considering two variables of theft and murder. In model I, unemployment, urbanization and income per capita have had significant positive impacts on theft, while industrialization and Gini coefficient have inversely influenced theft. In model II, economic growth and income per capita have had significant positive impact on murder rate. Result show spatial dependence.