globalization

Globalization as a complex and multi-dimensional phenomenon has wide-ranging effects on various economic, political, social and environmental areas. In recent decades, its importance has increased as one of the most important issues in policymaking and decisions among global communities. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to investigate the impact of globalization dimensions on economic growth and environmental quality in Iran during the period of 1971-2021 using the wavelet method. Based on the results of the globalization and economic growth index, initially, there is a relatively high dependence on high frequencies during the middle period under review, and the two indices are in the same phase (in the same direction) and economic growth is the reason for the increase globalization. Economic, political and social globalization lead to a decrease in the quality of the environment. The findings also show that in order to improve the quality of the environment and achieve sustainable development, policy makers should pay attention to reducing its negative effects on the environment in formulating globalization policies and adopt strategies to reduce CO2 emissions.

Solale Moslemi Hoda Zobeiri Maryam Khalili Asl Abstract In the process of globalization, the economic borders between countries become less and less, and the increasing mobility of resources, technology, goods, services, capital and even human power across borders becomes easier. As a result, this phenomenon leads to an increase in production and consumption in countries. The movement of developing countries towards the creation of an open economic space and integration into the global economy includes various changes and results, one of the most important changes being in the field of energy. Considering the speed of industrialization and globalization of many countries in order to achieve higher economic growth, energy consumption in the world is increasing. On the other hand, one of the most important concerns of human society since the 1990s is the environment and its health, which shows the necessity of using clean energy to achieve this goal. In this regard, the aim of this study is to investigate the impact of globalization on clean energy consumption in 12 countries during the years 1991-2014 using the panel data method. The model estimation results show that globalization has a negative relationship, financial development and urban population have a positive relationship with clean energy consumption, and GDP growth has no significant relationship with clean energy consumption.

Economic development is closely related to the consumption of natural resources. In particular, fossil energy is a vital resource for urbanization and industrialization and the main driving force for the development of a modern society. What is the way to decouple economy from energy or at least coordinate between the two? Globalization is like a modern evolution. By removing barriers among countries and expanding business and investment and sharing technology, it causes economic growth and accelerates it. In this regard, the aim of this research is to test the hypothesis that globalization (economic, social and political) improves the decoupling of economic growth from energy consumption and pollution.

The main goal of this research is to investigate the effect of economic, social and political globalization on the decoupling of economic growth from energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions in 94 selected countries based on the maximum available data during the period of 2000-2021. For this purpose, based on the literature in the field, a model was chosen and specified in the form of Equations 1 to 6. In these equations, the production coefficients (α1 and β1) are estimates of Tapio's decoupling index. The independent variables in the equations include economic globalization (models 1 and 2), social globalization (models 3 and 4), political globalization (models 5 and 6), economic structure (industry share), energy price, technology, and urbanization. They were entered multiplicatively with production in Equations 1 to 6 in order to estimate their effects on decoupling and identify the change of the decoupling interval:In these equations,  is energy consumption,  is carbon dioxide emission,   is economic growth,  is economic structure,  is economic globalization index,   is social globalization index,  is political globalization index,  is energy price,  is urbanization share, and  is technology. They are all for country i in year t. These equations were calculated using the generalized method of moments (GMM). In addition to its dynamics and ability to solve the problems of autocorrelation and heteroscedasticity, this method poses no problem of endogeneity of explanatory variables.

According to the results, the decoupling of economic growth from energy consumption was placed in the first region of the Tapio coordinates, and its value shows a weak decoupling. Specifically, the  coefficients of the selected models (1, 3 and 5) were found to be 0.339911, 0.309906 and 0.312093, respectively. The positive effect of economic growth on energy consumption was expected because every economic activity and its development requires energy. The coefficients of the multiplicative variables of economic, social and political dimensions of globalization were -0.06765, -0.003012 and -0.00991939, respectively. Based on these results, if economic growth is accompanied by the three dimensions of globalization, the decoupling of economic growth from energy consumption will be improved. The findings showed that, with these variables, there was no significant change in the decoupling interval. Also, according to the results, despite the worsening effect of economic structure (industry share) on the decoupling of economic growth from energy consumption, the decoupling interval would not change substantially. Of course, this finding was expected because the increase in the share of industry increases both economic growth and energy consumption. The results of this research further showed that the price of energy has worsened the decoupling. On the other hand, technology has expectedly improved the decoupling. Finally, it was shown that urbanization improves the decoupling. Despite these results, the individual and simultaneous effects of these variables do not change the decoupling interval.Regarding the decoupling of economic growth from pollution (carbon dioxide), the  coefficients of the selected models (2, 4 and 6) were 0.318560, 0.109514 and 0.213233, respectively, which indicate a weak decoupling. The coefficients of the multiplicative variables of economic globalization and political globalization were -0.046588 and -0.022803, respectively. Based on these estimates, economic and political dimensions of globalization have improved the decoupling of economic growth from pollution. On the other hand, the coefficient of the multiplicative variable of social globalization was 0.003401, based on which, social globalization has led to the worsening of the decoupling of economic growth from pollution. Also, the coefficients of the multiplicative variable of economic structure (industry share) in the selected models showed that industrialization has worsened the decoupling. Moreover, the multiplicative variable coefficients of energy price in the selected models showed that the increase in the energy price has worsened the decoupling. The coefficients of the multiplicative variable of technology in the selected models, however, suggested that technology improves the decoupling of economic growth from pollution. Finally, according to the results, urbanization has worsened the decoupling of economic growth from pollution. In general, the individual and simultaneous effects of the variables have not caused a serious change in the final interval of decoupling of economic growth from pollution. Wald test was used to check whether the coefficients of the globalization dimensions were significantly different. The results of this test indicated a statistical difference between the coefficients of globalization dimensions and the effect of globalization dimensions on decoupling.

Conclusions and policy implications:

 The results of the present research show that the economic, social and political dimensions of globalization improve the decoupling of economic growth from energy consumption. According to the results, economic globalization has a greater impact than the other two components of globalization. This can be due to the greater importance of economic fundamentals than social and political variables. Moreover, the economic and political dimensions of globalization improve the decoupling of economic growth from carbon dioxide emissions, but social globalization worsens this decoupling. It is shown that, compared to political globalization, economic globalization has a greater impact on the decoupling of economic growth and pollution, which is due to the dominance of the economic process in globalization. As another finding, technology improves the decoupling of economic growth from energy consumption and pollution. Also, urbanization improves the decoupling of economic growth from energy consumption, but it worsens the decoupling of economic growth from pollution. The main recommendation of the current research is that countries should pay attention to both internal border issues and international interactions in order to control energy consumption, preserve the environment, and reduce pollution.

Globalization has led to the fact that today, in addition to playing a role locally, cities also expand political, economic, cultural, and international relations. With the continuation of globalization, the management of international relations of cities has emerged in the network of global cities in the form of city diplomacy. Considering its privileged position in the Middle East and Asia, Iran has a lot of capacity to activate diplomacy in its cities. From this point of view, the current research aims to identify and categorize authentic scientific research articles (ranked) by the Ministry of Science, master’s theses, doctoral theses, and authentic authored and translated books in the field of city diplomacy in Iran

This research investigated the studies conducted in the last ten years using a meta-synthesis (systematic) method. By understanding the approaches and nature of each one, he investigated the structure of scientific works, including methodology, indicators, method of data collection and analysis, and the results obtained to find the positive aspects and gaps. Analyze research. First, by searching for the keyword “city diplomacy” in reliable scientific databases (Magiran, Civilica, Jihad University Scientific Information, Google Scholar, and Samaneh Ganj Irandak), scientific works that had the word “city diplomacy” in their main titles were collected. Then, the initial review of articles and theses and limiting them to the valid scientific-research articles of the Ministry of Science, as well as the valid theses and theses of state universities, and their coding was undertaken. The inclusion criteria of the studies included conducting research and publishing the research in the Farsi language and in the form of full text. Among all the studies, 30 studies were selected due to meeting the inclusion criteria. A total of 19 scientific research articles, five master’s thesis titles, one doctoral thesis title, three authored book titles, and finally, three translated book titles were published in the period of April 2013 to March 2014 related to city diplomacy

The findings of the research show that the weakness of studies in the field of city diplomacy in Iran in the early 90s is quite evident, which has gradually increased the quality of articles, especially in recent years. The cities of Tehran, Mashhad, and Shiraz, respectively, have the largest number of research works in the field of city diplomacy. In relation to the specialized areas of works published in the field of city diplomacy in Iran, it can be said that the most published works are related to experts in the fields of political science, urban planning, geography, and urban planning. The most important dimensions of city diplomacy investigated by the researchers in Iran include seven dimensions of urban economy: urban culture, urban development, urban security, urban representation, urban networks, and finally, urban research. Also, the other findings of the research indicate that in relation to the nature of the research under review, the frequency of applied research is more compared to basic research, while the research review, especially in the last 5 years, indicates a growing trend of fundamental research in the field of city diplomacy in Iran. Of course, it should be pointed out that from the sum of the analyses carried out in a documentary and meta-synthesis way, it appears that despite the importance of city diplomacy in Iran as one of the most basic tools of decentralization in the management of the international sphere, and on the other hand, as one of the main factors of national and transnational development, the weakness of studies in this field is very tangible, in such a way that the largest number of researches conducted in this field is in the period of 1402-1396. This is even though very few scientific works in this field were able to be reviewed before that. The lack of a publication that is specific to studies in the field of city diplomacy in Iran is very evident. The interdisciplinary capability of the concept of “city diplomacy” has made it possible to use experts in various fields of humanities in studies related to city diplomacy. From this point of view, it is necessary for thinkers related to the field of city diplomacy in Iran to work hard in order to establish a special publication with concepts related to city diplomacy. The results show that in terms of geographical distribution, Tehran province (Tehran metropolis) is in first place, followed by Khorasan Razavi (Mashhad metropolis) and Fars (Shiraz metropolis), respectively, ranked second and third. It seems that one of the main reasons for researchers’ interest in conducting research in the field of city diplomacy in the mentioned metropolises is the significant number of sister cities and also the image of their desired destination, which, as a result, leads to the strengthening of relations in the fields that are different from other cities in the world.

The results of this research show that there are many advantages for Iranian cities, especially big cities, to enter the field of city diplomacy actively and within the reasonable demands of the national government, but one of the main reasons for the inefficiency of the city diplomacy system in Iran, especially in big cities, is a lack of independence in decisions by the local government (big cities); in such a way that all the decisions in this field are completely dependent on the international relations (foreign policy) of the national (central) government. On the other hand, there are legal gaps in the field of city diplomacy in Iran, and the lack of sufficient power to delegate sufficient powers to urban management to facilitate the management of communication between international cities is quite evident. In general, city diplomacy in Iran has not been able to use all its potential capacities as it should, and as a result, it has led to the weakening of city diplomacy in the country.

 Globalization in recent decades has brought developed and developing economies closer to each other through trade, technology transfer, capital flows, bonds, and employment opportunities, and the positive impact of globalization has been linked to the availability of economic advantages. Globalization has certain adverse effects that cause the release of pollutants, ecological imbalances, and issues related to global climate change. The effects of greenhouse gas emissions may adversely affect sustainable economic growth through welfare-reducing channels. Other adverse effects of globalization include environmental damage, price fluctuations, over-specialization, elimination of local industries, and social and industrial deterioration. Economists argue that globalization activities improve domestic economic structure by integrating trade, technology transfer, and financial activities. As a result, the growth of global economic activities may lead to more energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Achieving sustainable environmental development along with preventing environmental degradation has always been a serious issue for policy makers. Globalization and diversification of exports are one of the most important factors affecting this issue.In this study, the impact of globalization variables and export diversification on the environment of 7 selected countries of the Persian Gulf is investigated. The focus of this study is on the combination of export diversification and globalization index (from the economic, political and social aspects), to investigate the performance of pollutants and as a result determine the EKC hypothesis in the Persian Gulf countries.

In order to conduct an empirical analysis of globalization, export diversity and environmental degradation, we use the panel data approach. The standard approach in spatial econometrics is that one should first start the analysis with a non-spatial model and then check whether the benchmark model needs to be developed by considering spatial interaction effects or not. The used sample includes 7 sections and the time period includes the years 1995 to 2020. The decision to select the sample is based on the availability of data from the World Bank. It will be used to estimate non-spatial fixed and random effects models. The fixed effects model controls for heterogeneity by allowing a separate interval for each cross section. While the random effects model shows the unobserved features of the country in the error term.

Export diversity has a positive and significant effect on carbon dioxide emissions, therefore creating diversification in exports in Persian Gulf countries will increase carbon dioxide emissions. The issue that has caused the high concentration of the export portfolio in these countries is the focus on the export of oil and gas and petrochemical products, which are inherently polluting industries. The findings also show that economic growth has a negative relationship with CO2 emissions. A one percent increase in economic growth reduces CO2 emissions by 1.67 percent based on the results of the Spatial Panel. The square effect of economic growth is also positive and significant, and this shows that the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic growth is U-shaped, such a U-shaped relationship basically shows that economic growth is not critical in reducing CO2 emissions in the countries in question. Considering that exports in the Persian Gulf countries are highly concentrated in the oil and gas and petrochemical sectors, and these sectors cause high pollution, therefore, the policy implications should be based on supporting the more efficient use of renewable energy in the economy of these countries. It should be noted that investment or tax incentives on technologies that consume renewable energy can be significant policy tools.

Sustainability of economic development requires environmental sustainability as part of a dynamic process. The results of this study showed that energy consumption and diversification of exports aggravates environmental degradation in Persian Gulf countries. The variety of export products significantly affects CO2 emissions in selected countries. In fact, export diversification can be useful not only for rapid economic growth but also for environmental pollution management. For example, companies should avoid producing goods that cause high CO2 emissions. This issue should be evaluated in expanding the export portfolio and products with high CO2 emissions can be imported. Of course, all these consequences require accurate knowledge of the scale of environmental pollutants in the economy of countries for each sector. Business and political efforts to diversify the portfolio of export products directly affect environmental quality. Countries can clarify information on capital flows related to investment companies to improve environmental regulations. Developing countries need to adopt efficient and effective environmental practices in activities related to foreign investment. To improve environmental quality from the perspective of energy policy, policymakers should focus on clean energy policies. Improving energy efficiency, investing in renewable resources, increasing the use of cleaner energy sources, and reducing energy intensity are the main options for reducing carbon emissions

In the content of human rights in Islam, women's rights have been raised in various economic, political and social fields in order to observe justice and social balance. According to Islam, employment is one of the divine rights of women, although it is not an obligation for women.On the other hand, due to the living conditions and the responsibilities that they bear regarding the care and upbringing of children, women often do not enjoy suitable job opportunities and are forced to accept vulnerable jobs such as domestic jobs, part-time jobs, with low wages and without social security .Since, according to Islam, there should not be any oppression and discrimination in social justice planning for people, including women, the investigation of the factors affecting the vulnerable employment of women in Islamic countries and what is involved in the transfer of women from the informal and vulnerable sector to the formal sector of the economy, is important. Therefore, this article was conducted with the aim of analyzing the effect of globalization and the legal rights strength on the vulnerable employment of women in 13 selected Islamic countries during the period of 2013-2022. For this purpose, Panel Dynamic Least Squares (PDOLS) method was used. The results indicated that the legal rights strength index had a negative effect on the vulnerable employment of women. Globalization index has a non-linear and U-shaped effect on women's vulnerable employment. Gender inequality and urban population have also had a positive effect on women's vulnerable employment.

This article investigates the factors that influence the readiness of banks to enter the international market. With the increasing liberalization of financial markets and advances in information technology, the world is experiencing the internationalization of services including banking, insurance, advertisements, accounting, communications, and mass media. The internationalization of banking services has become a major pillar of financial globalization. The study conducted a systematic literature review based on the PRISMA statement, selecting 32 out of 711 studies for qualitative analysis. The findings reveal that there are both systematic and non-systematic criteria that determine banks' readiness to enter the international market, with nine sub-categories and 38 subset codes identified. The article concludes by developing a pattern that explains the criteria for banks' preparation for internationalization. This study is particularly relevant to the banking industry, and the results suggest that researchers are increasingly interested in the field of financial internationalization. The article emphasizes the complexity of the process and highlights the need for in-depth analysis to better understand the factors affecting banks' preparation for internationalization.

Available statistics show that countries have moved towards greater integration in economic globalization over the past three decades, and this process is occurring in most countries, but the trend of this movement is not the same for all countries, which indicates the asymmetrical integration of countries in globalization. The characteristics of this research also indicate that the Iranian economy is closed and unfree and is slowly moving towards an open economy and greater integration into the globalization of the economy, The reason for this movement is that the rentier structure of Iran's economy has emerged from the global economic structures, and therefore economic development and political decline has been created. As a result, reliance on windfall income from rent, especially oil, has affected the structure and functioning of the middle class after the revolution, confronting this class with political and economic challenges. The following article focuses on the question of what impact has rentier structure and asymmetric integration in economic globalization in Iran had on the structure and functioning of the middle class in Iran. The research hypothesis is also based on the fact that it seems that rentier structure and asymmetric integration of economic globalization have caused the gradual decline of the middle class in post-revolutionary Iran. Therefore, the main purpose of this article is to describe the political-economic challenges of the middle class in the rentier state, which can lead to the dynamism and role of the middle class in the political-economic development of Iran. This research has a descriptive-analytical approach in terms of the documentary research method.

The purpose of this research was to investigate the impact of interdependence and globalization on good governance and foreign policy of governments. According to the subject of the research, the objectives of the research were to study the effects of globalization and its consequences on the foreign policy of governments and to study the relationship between good government and good governance, and the method used in this research is descriptive, analytical, and in terms of type The research is a theoretical research. Good governance with its eight indicators works in regulating the relations between the government, the private sector and civil institutions in such a way that each of them achieves the set goals and the efficiency and performance of the government. raise the model of good governance by making all sectors active and if the conditions are available, can achieve sustainable human development by using the power of the private and civil sectors of the country. Good governance by increasing political freedoms, freedom of the press and free dissemination of information as the rights of commenting and accountability in the long term, citizens can be expected to have the power to monitor and control the actions of governments, and this causes Governments should be more responsive to meeting the needs of the people and choose policies that lead to the development of human capital, investment in the general expenses of the society, optimal allocation of resources and ultimately improvement of economic growth. With the increase in political stability in the long term, risk and uncertainty in the country's economic environment will decrease, and as a result, domestic and foreign investments and economic growth will increase. In fact, the rule of law index indicates that in a society where the citizens and rulers obey and respect the law, government contracts are executed properly, property rights are respected, and the functioning of the judicial system is acceptable. Anticipation and complaints against the government become successful and these factors cause the efficient allocation of private and public resources to productive activities and accelerate economic growth. In general, sustainable development means development It is sustainable in economic, social and environmental dimensions at the same time and will preserve natural resources and increase the quality of life of society.

Given the importance of globalization and its relationship with energy intensity, this study examines the role of globalization with an emphasis on its threshold effect on energy intensity convergence in the Middle East region during 1980-2019. The Panel Smooth Transition Regression (PSTR) model was used to investigate the non-linear relationship. The simultaneous characteristics of heterogeneity, non-linearity, and cross-sectional correlation of variables were examined, considering globalization as a transmission variable. The results of the linearity test confirmed the existence of a non-linear relationship between the variables. Moreover, considering a threshold transfer function with a threshold parameter indicating a two-regime model was determined to clarify the non-linear relationship between variables of the model. Finally, threshold limits of 1.697 and 1.874 and a slope parameter or transfer rate of 226.997 were estimated. The results also indicate a lack of convergence in energy intensity among countries in the Middle East region. Therefore, it is not possible to create a single energy policy that can be implemented simultaneously for all countries in the Middle East region

The aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of factors affecting capability poverty in the selected Muslim countries known as the D8 group relying on the Feasible Generalized Least Squares (FGLS) method during the period of 1997-2021. Results show the negative and significant effect of globalization on capability poverty in the D8 countries during the covered period, such that for each unit increase in the globalization index, capability poverty decreases by 1.8%, which indicates a relative improvement in the welfare of these countries. Likewise, the impact of economic growth on capability poverty is positive, so that a one percent increases in economic growth leads to an increase in capability poverty by 0.21 percent. Such finding can be due to not utilization of the benefits of growth to improve welfare infrastructure in the mentioned countries. In addition, the effect of control variables such as inflation and geographical distribution of the population has also been evaluated positively on capability poverty. Based on the findings of the current study, it is recommended to adopt inflation control programs and moving towards the promotion of globalization indicators in the economies of the D8 group.

There has been a seemingly growing and unstoppable trend towards Globalization during the past few decades that has affected various fields. Some believe that globalization can pose a serious threat to world peace. On the other hand, others argue that globalization offers an opportunity for creating a more peaceful world. In this regard, the main purpose of this article is to examine the impact of globalization by analyzing relevant sub-indices including economic, social and political globalization and their relationship with the degree of militarization (considered as a negative indicator of movement towards world peace) in 171 countries around the world, during the 2001-2021 time period. For this purpose, the methodology of this paper relied on drawing on the theoretical literature and applying the panel data method in order to identify and model the factors affecting the movement towards militarization and globalization.The results obtained using the SGMM estimator show that the effect of globalization and all its sub-indices on the Global Militarization index (GMI) is negative and significant. Moreover, among the sub-indicators of globalization, economic globalization had the greatest effect in reducing militarization in countries around the world. Therefore, it can be argued that globalization is not only, not a threat to peace in the world, but furthermore, it helps to facilitate movement towards world peace. Based on other results, it can be argued that improving the level of democracy, improving the functioning of institutions and reducing regional arms competition will have a significant effect on reducing the militarization process, consequently, facilitating movement towards world peace.

The misery index is an economic indicator that is obtained from the sum of the inflation rate and the unemployment rate, and its increase indicates a decrease in social welfare and the spread of poverty. The current research, using the panel data approach and the method of generalized moments (GMM), examines the impact of the institution and globalization on the misery index in two groups of countries with a per capita income above 25 thousand dollars and countries with a per capita income below 25 thousand dollars during the period of 2008-2020. The results show that the governance institutional index has a negative and significant effect on the misery index in both groups of selected countries. Based on this, a one percent improvement in the quality of governance leads to a reduction of the misery index by 0.26 percent in countries with high per capita income and 0.14 percent in countries with low per capita income. Also, the globalization index has a negative and significant effect on the misery index in both groups of selected countries, which means that a one percent increase in the globalization leads to a decrease in the misery index by 0.53% in countries with high per capita income and 0.29% in countries with low per capita income. Therefore, it is recommended to provide a suitable foundation for improving the quality of governance through the channel of improving the quality of laws and regulations, the rule of law, corruption control, and the efficiency and effectiveness of the government to take advantage of the globalization environment in order to achieve a low inflation rate and unemployment rate, so reducing the misery index.

The present study investigates the nonlinear relationship between globalization, economic growth, financial development and ecological footprint in Iran during the period of 1360-1400 by using the NARDL nonlinear model.According to the estimation results of NARDL nonlinear model; The null hypothesis based on the equality of the coefficients of positive and negative shocks of globalization and financial development fluctuations cannot be rejected.Therefore, the effect of these positive and negative shocks on the ecological footprint is not asymmetric in the long term. But for the variable of economic growth, this effect has been asymmetric, in the sense that positive and negative shocks of economic growth do not have the same and equal effects, even in the opposite direction, on the ecological footprint, and therefore this relationship is a non-linear relationship.An increase in economic growth with an increase in the level of GDP will lead to an increase in production and an increase in exports, which, while requiring an increase in energy, affects the ecological footprint.On the other hand, based on the results of the NARDL method, the impact of financial development on the ecological footprint has been positive and significant.The increase in the financial development index leads to an increase in the production of goods as well as the provision of services, and as a result, more energy and raw materials are consumed, which will have a positive effect on the ecological footprint index.

Many variables affect well-being, one of which is globalization. Globalization has many dimensions and layers, among which economic, social and political dimensions are of special importance. In this research, KOF globalization index is used. This index consists of three economic, social and political dimensions and each dimension has two De Facto and De Jure components. In this study, economic well-being was first calculated with the composite index of well-being. Then, in the form of four model, the impact of each of the dimensions of globalization and their components on Iran’s economic well-being was investigated and tested in the period of 1979-2020 with using the ARDL model.  The long run results indicate that all three dimensions of globalization (economic, political and social) have a positive effect on economic well-being. Both De Facto and De Jure components of economic and political globalization have a positive effect on economic well-being. Although De Jure component of social globalization has a positive effect on economic well-being, but its De Facto does not have a significant effect on economic well-being. Another finding is that economic growth and real GDP per capita have a positive effect and inflation has a negative effect on economic well-being.

The remarkable progress of human societies in the current era in the scientific, industrial and economic fields and the irreplaceable role of financing activities in any progress and development have made the day-by-day development of accounting a basic need. It has been claimed for a long time that the accounting information contained in financial records is one of the most important sources of information for investors and other capital market participants. It is necessary that this information is relevant, reliable and transparent so that they can use it in making appropriate decisions. The experiences of other countries as well as numerous researches acknowledge that the use of international financial reporting standards improves the transparency of financial reporting. Considering the non-implementation of international financial reporting standards in Iran, despite the requirement from the stock exchange organization and the audit organization, this research conducted a meta-analysis on the obstacles to the implementation of international financial reporting standards, and the findings indicate that the lack of attention to environmental conditions and Economic, political consequences, cultural and social factors, laws and regulations, failure to protect the interests of all stakeholder groups, implementation cost, excessive use of fair value and strict IFRS regulations on information disclosure are the most important challenges and obstacles to the implementation of international financial reporting standards.

This study uses the Panel VAR methodology to examine the impact of globalization on the effectiveness of monetary policies in a subset of Islamic countries. For this purpose, first, changes in real per capita gross production and changes in inflation rate were estimated using Hadrick-Prescott filter during the period of 2000-2019. In order to investigate the effect of globalization on production changes and inflation rate changes, auto-regression panel data pattern was used. Then, using the shock response test, the impact of globalization on the efficiency of monetary policies in the economy of selected Islamic countries was analyzed. The findings reveal that globalization, in conjunction with enhanced liquidity, induces shifts in GDP, thereby diminishing the potency of monetary policy. Shocks stemming from the interactive variable of globalization and interest rates drive fluctuations in GDP, underscoring the diminished efficacy of monetary policy due to interest rates. Over the long term, alterations in the inflation rate exhibit no discernible response to shocks from the interactive variables of financial globalization, liquidity volume, and globalization combined with interest rates. Consequently, in the extended term, monetary policy wielded through interest rates mitigates inflationary shifts, underscoring the efficacy of the interest rate channel. Therefore, Islamic countries can strengthen the mobility and transfer of foreign capitals to the country by increasing the domestic interest rate, which with the entry of foreign capitals will strengthen the domestic production capacities, followed by an increase in exports and an increase in foreign investment, and in this way will lead to By strengthening the supply side of the domestic economy, controlling and reducing inflation is achieved.

Today, the expansion of international trade and economic globalization has made human capital very important in the process of economic growth and development, so it is necessary to examine issues related to human capital, especially from its economic aspects. Therefore, in this study, the impact of international trade on human capital has been investigated. Proponents of globalization believe that trade affects human development directly through income and indirectly through cultural mixing and increasing the variety of available goods. In this study, OECD countries have been examined because they have a high level of trade relations and especially play a fundamental role in creating global trade opportunities. Accordingly, an econometric model has been specified, that examines the impact of trade on human capital by using the data of OECD countries and dynamic panel method and the generalized moments method from 1990 to 2021. The results indicate that the development of export and import through international trade has positive and significant impact on human capital in these countries, and creating spillovers and transferring technology through foreign trade, play an important role in the development of human capital. the lagged value of human development index also has a positive and significant effect on human development index.

Undoubtedly, it is possible to achieve long-term and continuous economic growth in any country by equipping and optimally allocating investment resources in the national economy of that country, and the role of developed financial markets is necessary to achieve this goal. In fact, the role and importance of the financial system in the development process of countries is such that the difference between developed and developing economies can be found in the degree of efficiency and effectiveness of their financial system. Financial development is a category, which, according to the developments of financial markets, following the discussions of globalization and financial integration after the 70s, was taken into the attention of economists. Therefore, considering the importance of the financial development category in different countries, the study of factors affecting it has always been emphasized. Financial development is a set of factors, policies and institutions that lead to the creation of effective financial markets and financial intermediaries and provide deep and wide access to capital and financial services.

 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:

Many factors can influence the development process of financial markets, among which, the role of the combined index of globalization and inflation can be very important. Some economists and economic policymakers, such as Greenaway and Baltaji, believe that globalization leads to better macroeconomic performance and faster financial development in terms of financial and commercial openness, which many empirical studies support this view. International institutions such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Economic Development advise member countries to believe that commercial and financial liberalization has a positive effect on financial development.

In this research, the non-linear effects of globalization and inflation on the financial development index (facilities granted by the banking system) in Iran during the period 1368 to 2020 have been investigated by using the Markov switching econometric technique. In this study, the dependent variable is financial development, and the independent variables are inflation, globalization, capital stock, and government spending.

In the first regime, the economic dimension of globalization has a positive effect on financial development, which indicates that, due to the increase in the economic dimension of globalization, the index of financial development (facilities granted by the banking system) increases. But in the second regime, the economic dimension of globalization has a negative effect on financial development, which indicates that, due to the increase in the economic dimension of globalization, the index of financial development (facilities granted by the banking system) decreases. Inflation caused by demand pressure and monetary inflation in both regimes has a negative effect on financial development, which indicates that, due to the increase in inflation caused by demand pressure and monetary inflation, the index of financial development (facilities granted by the banking system) decreases.Human capital in both regimes has a positive effect on financial development, which indicates that, due to the increase in human capital, the financial development index (facilities granted by the banking system) increases.In the first regime, capital stock has a positive effect on financial development, which indicates that, due to an increase in capital stock, the index of financial development (facilities granted by the banking system) increases. But in the second regime, ithas no effect on financial development. Government spending in both regimes has a negative effect on financial development, which indicates that, due to an increase in government spending, the financial development index (facilities granted by the banking system) decreases.

CONCLUSIONS & SUGGESTIONS:

The results of the estimates indicate that the sources of inflation (inflation caused by demand pressure and monetary inflation, structural inflation, inflation caused by cost pressure and imported inflation) had a negative effect on financial development in both regimes. Regarding the dimensions of globalization (economic dimension, social dimension and political dimension), we saw a positive relationship in the first regime and a negative relationship in the second regime. In connection with the results of the control variables, the variables of capital stock and human capital in both regimes had a positive effect on banking facilities, but the effect of government spending on banking facilities in both regimes was negative. Now, according to the results, policy proposals are presented as follows:- What can be stated with certainty is that paying attention to globalization and joining international organizations such as the World Trade Organization can help improve the performance of financial development indicators in Iran. Because Iran has a long way to go on the path of globalization and integration into it. Therefore, the economic, political, social and cultural dimensions, especially the political dimension, need a fundamental revision.

Globalization has been rising over the years and the trend seems perpetual. Ideas, technology, resources and final goods are progressively mobile across international borders. Consequently, the economic conditions in most developing countries are not exclusively decided by internal policies and market situations. The world continues to witness intensified interdependence and competition between economies in addition to more benefits to developing countries in terms of more access to international markets, intensify technology transfer from more developed nations. On the other hand, nowadays militarization continues under the impact of technological advances, infrastructural development, geopolitical competition and growth in troop size. In this regard, one of the important economic debates is whether globalization leads to the expansion of militarization (positive causality from globalization to militarization) or helps to control it and promote peace (negative causality from globalization to militarization)? Or vice versa, is it the militarization that slows down the process of globalization (negative causality from militarization to globalization) or does it enable the presence in international markets (positive causality from militarization to globalization)?According to these points, the aim of this paper is to examine the causality between globalization and militarization for the 12 Middle East countries that have the highest level of militarization in this region over the period 2000-2020.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:

There are arguments in favour of positive impact of globalisation on military expenditure. For instance, it is argued that globalisation stimulates defense spending over social expenditure. Moreover, security concessions in free trade arrangements makes it easy for governments to expand military expenditure, but put restrictions on social expenditure. There are arguments in favour of the negative impact of globalisation on military spending. It is opined that military expenditure should fall significantly due to economic liberalisation and globalization. With the rising quest for the acquisition of wealth through trade and economic liberalisation, countries are progressively hesitant to use military means to resolve inter-state disputes. Furthermore, with the emergence of the unparalleled forces of globalisation, particularly after the Cold War ended, the function of the state as provider of security is believed to be on the decrease.Moreover, the reverse causation can also be applicable that is, in the presence of conflict and civil war the governments increase their military expenditures in order to promote the nation state and enhancing their territorial jurisdictions. As a result, internationalization or global integration needs to be forgone. In contrast to the increase in militarization due to the need to import technology and advanced weapons as well as the export of manufactured weapons, it enables the presence in international markets, which leads to the improvement of the level of globalization.

The data used in this study covers the period 2000–2020 for the 12 Middle East countries that have the highest level of militarization in this region (Turkey, UAE, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Jordan, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman and Israel). The chosen time period stems from the availability of data. The variables used in this study include the global militarization index (MIL), the overall globalization index (GLOB), and per capita real GDP (GDPC) as a control variable. The overall globalization index includes economic, social, and political globalization. The economic globalization (36%) consists of actual flows, trade and capital account restrictions. The social globalization (38%) involves data on personal contact, information flows, and cultural proximity. The political globalization (26%) consists of number of embassies in the country, membership in international organizations, participation in UN security-council missions, and international treaties. The variables are expressed in log forms. Data is obtained from the World Bank’s World Development Indicators, KOF Swiss Economic Institute’s overall globalization index, and Bonn International Center for Conversation (BICC).The estimation of the model has also been done by using the causality test in heterogeneous mixed panels (Presented by Emirmahmutoglu & Kose (2011)), which is based on the Vector Auto Regressive (VAR) model and Wald tests with specific bootstrap critical values for each country. The panel causality method presented by Emirmahmutoglu & Kose (2011) consists of a system, including two sets of equations as follows: In the above relationship, y indicates globalization and x refers to militarization. N is the number of panel members (j=1,..,N), t is the time period (t=1,..,T), l is the optimal lag length and  is the maximum degree of stationary of the model variables between each of the panel members. To test for Granger causality in this system, alternative causal relations for each country are likely to be found: (1) there is one-way Granger causality from X to Y if not all are zero, but all are zero; (2) there is one-way Granger causality from Y to X if all are zero, but not all are zero; (3) there is two-way Granger causality between X and Y if neither nor are zero; and (4) there is no Granger causality between X and Y if all and are zero.

Empirical results show the existence of a positive one-way causality relationship from the side of militarization to globalization (the hypothesis of militarization leading to an increase in globalization) in Egypt and Israel, a negative one-way causality relationship from the side of militarization to globalization (the hypothesis of militarization leading to a decrease in globalization) in the countries of Turkey and the UAE, a negative one-way causality relationship from globalization to militarization (hypothesis of globalization leads to limiting militarization) in the country of Oman, a negative two-way causality relationship between militarization and globalization (feedback hypothesis) in the country of Kuwait and non-causality relationship between militarization and globalization (neutral hypothesis) for the countries of Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Jordan, Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Also, the non-causality relationship between globalization and militarization (or the neutral hypothesis) is confirmed for the total panel.

CONCLUSIONS & SUGGESTIONS:

In general, based on the results, it can be said that globalization does not affect the process of militarization in the countries of the Middle East region and is not a threat to security in the countries of this region. Therefore, through globalization and moving towards an open economy, the countries of this region can provide the necessary platforms for things like attracting technology, capital and financial resources, regional and global arrangements, and joint investment in the fields of knowledge; Without this issue being a serious threat to security and the level of militarization in the Middle East region. Also, it is suggested that in the future studies, a more detailed examination of the research subject will be done by separating globalization into economic, political and social globalization types.