inequality

Understanding the distribution of poverty within society—whether chronic or transient—is crucial for designing and implementing effective poverty reduction policies. This paper uses seven panels of data spanning different periods from the 1990s to the 2020s to estimate chronic poverty trends in Iran, applying two methods the components method and the equally distributed equivalent (EDE) poverty gap method. The components method reveals a lower proportion of chronic poverty compared to the EDE approach, which estimates this figure at an average of 88%. Over time, chronic poverty trends have paralleled broader macroeconomic conditions, declining from the 1990s through the early 2010s, stabilizing briefly, and then increasing again by the late 2010s. The EDE poverty gap method also distinguishes chronic poverty into two parts: the average poverty gap and an inequality component. The findings suggest that changes in chronic poverty are primarily driven by fluctuations in the average poverty gap, with inter-individual inequality playing a less prominent role, despite consistently comprising a larger share of chronic poverty.

Financing is the most important duty and mission of banks towards the economy, and if the optimal allocation of credit resources does not happen, the stability of the macro economy will be damaged and the economy can experience stagnation or inflation. Nevertheless, the available statistics show that the situation of access to financing in Iran is extremely unequal and unbalanced, and the lack of a systematic and dynamic approach in allocating credit to the needs of enterprises has made the allocated facilities unable to play a useful role in improving financing. financial and production status of enterprises. With this explanation, in this study, using the vector autoregression method, the effect of credit facilities to small and medium enterprises on inequality in Iran during the period of 2000-2022 has been investigated. The results showed that the variable of granted facilities to small and medium enterprises could not have a significant effect on inequality in Iran. This issue can be caused by the amount of providing credit resources, the process of granting credits in terms of selecting economic plans and monitoring the consumption of these credits. Also, according to the obtained results, the existing inequality variable has the greatest effect on inequality in the future periods.Abstract: Financing is the most important duty and mission of banks towards the economy, and if the optimal allocation of credit resources does not happen, the stability of the macro economy will be damaged and the economy can experience stagnation or inflation. Nevertheless, the available statistics show that the situation of access to financing in Iran is extremely unequal and unbalanced, and the lack of a systematic and dynamic approach in allocating credit to the needs of enterprises has made the allocated facilities unable to play a useful role in improving financing. financial and production status of enterprises. With this explanation, in this study, using the vector autoregression method, the effect of credit facilities to small and medium enterprises on inequality in Iran during the period of 2000-2022 has been investigated.

The economic puzzle of the relationship between the rent of natural resources and growth and the ways of its influence on income distribution are discussed from several aspects; On the one hand, the creation of rent-seeking opportunities and the size of the shadow economy to take over the rent from resources will reduce economic efficiency and inequality in income distribution. And other hand, the optimal use of natural resource income for the education and health of human capital leads to a fair distribution of income. The aim is to estimate the direct and indirect effects (spatial spillovers) of the spatial proximity of resource rents on income distribution, including the role of the human development index and the shadow economy in two long and short-term dimensions in the form of spatial econometrics using distance-weighted proximity matrix among 75 countries. It is in 4 income groups in the period (1990-2021). Using Moran's test, the spatial model was confirmed and the spatial dynamic pattern (spregxt) was estimated. The results the decreasing trend of direct and indirect effects of resource rent in the long term due to the increase in per capita income in countries in 4 income groups; As high- and middle-income countries manage and control the shadow economy and invest in the education and health of human resources, the equal distribution of income within the country has improved the distribution of income in neighboring countries as well. In lowand middle-income countries, the negative impact of the shadow economy on income distribution has become more widespread over time.

We survey the literature on the relationship between macroeconomic stability and inclusive growth and identify gaps in our knowledge. We examine the role of macroeconomic policies (fiscal, monetary, macroprudential, and exchange rate) and measures of inclusiveness (income inequality, consumption inequality, wealth inequality, poverty, and unemployment) across countries at different income levels. Avoiding procyclical macroeconomic policies and mitigating macroeconomic volatility should be on the agenda of all policymakers concerned with promoting inclusive growth. The emerging theory and evidence suggest a strong role for macroeconomic policies in shaping inclusive growth, both in the short-run and the long-run. The two-way relationship between the macroeconomy and inequality underscores the challenge of identifying and estimating causal relationships. Models with heterogeneous agents have much to offer in this area.

Justice is one of the key concepts in regulating individual and social behavior. The Qur'an deals with justice as a behavioral concept. But in the expression of Islamic thoughts, we see that they attribute various understandings of justice to the Qur'an and Islam. Some consider justice as a general concept and consider economic justice as an installment. Some consider justice as a government and some interpret justice as equality in incomes. Different and sometimes conflicting interpretations cannot be the meaning of justice. Also, interpretations contrary to other Qur'anic and religious foundations cannot be the Qur'anic meaning of justice. Based on clear principles in religious interpretations, nothing contrary to the Qur'an can be attributed to religion and Islam. This article tries to provide an analysis on the causes of non-Qur'anic understanding of the concept of justice by looking at the theoretical frameworks and methodology of semantics, and then with the methods of etymology, semantics and comparative analysis the Qur'an to the Qur'an, to analyze and extract the correct concept of justice in the Qur'an and its various dimensions, including the economic aspect of justice in the Qur'an. The main findings of this study show that most of the common errors in semantics have occurred in the perception of justice. Also, Quranic justice means giving and respecting people's rights, and notions such as equal distribution of income, wealth, consumption, and the like cannot be compatible with Quranic justice. Equality of human beings is part of Quranic justice, but equalizing human beings is contrary to Quranic justice. Also, justice in the Qur'an has different dimensions, which include the behavior of ruling, testifying, speaking and giving, and respecting the economic rights of others.

One of the most important issues in designing a tax on aggregate personal income is the specification of tax rates and brakets. The purpose of this[s1] study is to design the optimal framework of personal income tax in terms of tax rates and brakets and to evaluate its effects. In doing so, microsimulation model is used and required micro data were obtained using the Household Expenditure Survey of Iranian Statistics Center in 2017.[s2] The tax rates, income brackets, deductions, exemptions, and subsidies to low-income people have been determined in such a way that the best works are determined according to the [s3] gini coefficient and progressivity index, with the restriction of providing current amount of tax revenue for the government. The results show that by introducing the new personal income tax, while maintaining the government's tax revenues and paying a negative tax to the low-income, horizontal inequality (measured by the Gini coefficient) and vertical inequality (measured by the Progressivity Index) can be significantly improved.

Regional economic differences are a hot topic in regional economy and are one of the indicators of economic security. This has always been one of the priorities of regional policy makers to reduce regional disparities and distribute the budget and of society equally based on different economic, health, social and infrastructure needs. The purpose of this research is to investigate the provincial inequalities among the provinces of Iran based on the law of balanced use of the country's facilities. Hierarchical analysis method has been used to achieve this goal. The findings of the research indicate that among the four main criteria, the criteria of supervision, executive, legal and institutional management and statistics and information. It is ranked 3rd, 2nd, 1st and 4th respectively. And among the 30 sub-criteria, the lack of a transparent scientific mechanism in the distribution of national balance credits between the country's provinces. The existence of hidden and seasonal unemployment in most of the less developed cities and the lack of inclusion of the city in the use of 32 plans under the unemployment rate index in most of the cities. The low role of the Provincial Planning and Development Council in the distribution of inter-city credits based on the indicators considered by the Council is ranked first, second and third respectively. And it has the greatest impact in the field of inequality, and the criterion, lack of systematic communication the indicators of the balanced law and the plans and projects of Annex No. 1 of the annual budget laws are ranked last and have the least impact on inequality.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1778-1712), a French philosopher and theorist, is considered one of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment era. In one of his most prominent works, Rousseau clearly declares that there is a direct connection between inequality and private property as the first sin of inequality. Now, this research, which relies on the theory of contradiction and conflict in terms of its fundamental theoretical content and in terms of its critical methodology, tries to answer the question, what are the elements and components of Rousseau's theoretical anthropology, and how can it be generalized and interpreted with the roots of inequality in Rousseau's political economy? The result of this research shows that although Rousseau's approach to private property in the essay on political economy and Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality seems different, the roots of human moral/social inequality should be found in the components of his theoretical anthropology, especially natural man and civil man with key concepts such as self-love, pity and compassion, as well as the fundamental differences in his attitude towards the natural state, primitive man and civilized man (compared to the teachings of the Catholic Church, Hobbes' theory of the natural state and Locke's civil state). The realm of inequality should be sought from God and the individual towards law and society.     Keywords: theoretical anthropology, inequality, civil status, private property, Jean-Jacques Rousseau Keywords: theoretical anthropology, inequality, civil status, private property, Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Poverty is one of the major problems of human societies that causes many social harms. Therefore, policymakers and economic development planners always aim to eliminate it. In addition, economic growth is one of the important and influential variables of macroeconomics. Therefore, examining the impact of economic growth on poverty through the lens of growth and distribution effects offers valuable insights for policymaking and poverty reduction strategies. In this study, we use the log-normal curve approach introduced by Bourguignon to estimate the growth effect on poverty utilizing data from urban households in Iran over the period 2013-2019. The results indicate that only in the one-year period of 2015-2016, the triangle of poverty, growth, and inequality has worked well and the growth has been pro-poor.Furthermore, provincial-level findings unveil discernible patterns:(a) In provinces experiencing positive growth, urban areas in Qom exhibit pro-poor growth, while those in Alborz, Golestan, and Hamedan provinces observe a trickle-down effect. Meanwhile, in other provinces, growth demonstrates an immiserizing trend.(b) In provinces with negative growth, only urban areas in Markazi province observe a reduction in poverty. However, due to the lack of growth, it cannot be concluded that this province has had pro-poor growth. In the urban areas of other provinces in this group, the situation has been unfavourable for the poor.

Measuring inequality and investigating the distributional consequences of policies is a main prerequisite for policy making in the area of inequality; furthermore, answer of this question that "Is a limit of inequality justifiable? If so, by what analysis and to what extent?" requires a theory of justice and an index that should be based on the society values. This research after criticizing theoretical foundations of conventional indexes of income inequality and presenting the Islamic definition of "Consumption Balance" (Tawaazun; the range between poverty and extravagance) as an alternative, introduce a measure which is in accordance with this definition: The proportion of poverty and extravagance to the consumption of society. Then we use this index for measuring unjustifiable inequality (consumption imbalance) of Iran’s economy, and estimating the effect of Islamic tax (Khums) on it. Estimations express increasing trend of consumption balance in studied years and much more increase of it in case of khums execution.

After the financial crisis of 2008, the use of macro-prudential policies has been increased by central banks in order to stabilize the entire financial system along with goals such as inflation stability and economic growth. Considering that the indicators of banking health in the Iranian economy show the unhealthiness of banks and on the other hand, the use of asset-based tools provides different access for different groups of loan applicants, in this study, an attempt has been made by using the DSGE model including heterogeneous households. And by using the statistical information of the period of 1401-1370, the final effects of precautionary policies on the distribution of income and wealth should be investigated. The results show that the use of these tools, on the one hand, leads to the reduction of inequality through increasing financial stability and economic growth, and on the other hand, due to the increase in the cost of access to credit for low-income households, it increases inequality, so the final result depends on the final outcome of these two effects. .

According to the Austrian School of Economics, money creation as the new purchasing power causes a boost in inequality because it is not simultaneously available to consumers. Therefore, imposing restrictions on money creation prevents the increase in inequality. Although assessing moral hazard and creditworthiness is an essential factor in credit supply, "Money Multiplier Theory" also considers it a function of the inflow of reserves and their supply by the central bank. In contrast, according to "Money Creation Theory," reserves are not a prerequisite for creating money. Banks' lack of need for reserves results in passive money creation, which is inelastic to the supply of reserves, and a large amount of it is made up of loans paid to related individuals and close to the bank. Although this kind of lending reduces the cost of evaluating creditworthiness, it provides new purchasing power to a small part of society who have access to new money earlier than others and are not limited to prudential rules such as the loan-to-value ratio. Analyzing the performance of the banking system in the Iranian economy shows that the amount of loans provided to people with a long-term relationship with the bank is beyond the limits specified in the prudential regulations.

According to Piketty’s point of view, the rate of income from wealth is always higher than the rate of economic growth, and the share of national income that belongs to capital is always more than the share of labor force. Therefore, inequality increases systematically and increasingly. The solution to this problem is to impose a maximum tax on wealth. Therefore, the tax on the components of wealth was imposed with the aim of reducing inequality. In Iran, this type of tax is collected from different components of wealth. Therefore, this research was conducted with the aim of investigating the impact of wealth tax on income distribution in Iran. For this purpose, a model was estimated in which the Gini coefficient was the dependent variable and the wealth tax and income tax were the independent variables along with the unemployment rate. Estimates were made using the time series data of 1991-2018 with the help of the Johansen-Juselius cointegration method. The results showed that there is a negative relationship between wealth tax and Gini coefficient. So that a one percent increase in wealth tax reduces inequality by 0.729 percent. The results showed that the speed of impact of wealth tax policies on income distribution is very slow, so that applying a change in wealth tax every year shows only 12% of the total impact on inequality.

One of the first steps towards sustainable development is to establish equality between and within generations. In other words, sustainable development requires improving the welfare of the poor people of the society to reduce inequality. Inequality makes it difficult to achieve development in different ways such as the destruction of capital and social cohesion and the weakening of national security. This is because it prevents political stability. Moreover, inequality has a serious negative effect on the development of society by preventing capital formation and human development. Economic equality has a higher importance in countries with ethnic and religious diversity like Afghanistan. It has a major role in destroying the social cohesion of the society. On the one hand, the incentive for inequality of opportunities increases the interests and benefits of the governing groups, and, on the other hand, inequality is considered immoral and attributed to privileged groups and their rent-seeking. One of the important issues in Afghanistan seems to be the unequal distribution of development among different provinces of the country. Therefore, the first step in planning regional development and achieving more balanced growth and development in Afghanistan is to investigate the current situation of different provinces according to the degree of their development. The present research aims to investigate the difference in the level of development in Afghanistan in 2015 and 2019. Development can be measured based on various criteria such as income, literacy, education, health, physical and communication infrastructure. Thus, the degree of development in Afghanistan's provinces was examined by combining different criteria whose data could be accessed.

This study provided a new methodological instrument to supervise the development process of different areas in Afghanistan. The differences in the development level of 34 provinces of Afghanistan were examined by a three-step approach, including the selection of the development indicators, calculation of the degree of development in the provinces, and analysis of regional changes. Therefore, the TOPSIS technique, which is a ranking method, was used to understand the level of development and their spatial equality. It should be noted that the TOPSIS technique is a practical instrument to select and rank different alternatives. The data about the indicators were collected from the statistics of the World Bank, the United Nations, and the Central Bureau of Statistics and Information of Afghanistan.

According to the results, Kabul Province had the first rank of development in both periods. The development of Kabul decreased in 2019 compared to 2015 and reached 0.5280 from one. The level of development also decreased in other provinces of Afghanistan, except for Kunduz, Herat, and Helmand. The classification of Afghanistan's provinces into developed, developing, and underdeveloped categories indicates that only Kabul is a developed province. Most of the provinces of Afghanistan are in the developing category with a short distance from the underdeveloped ones. The changes in many provinces included in this category are similar to those in Kabul Province, but they cannot improve their conditions or maintain their previous situation. In general, development has not improved in this country considering that the average development of the provinces did not increase in 2019 compared to 2015, and the standard deviation of the country's development did not decrease either. As the gap between the most developed and the least developed provinces increases, the intensity of regional inequality and imbalance increases too.

According to the results, the policies adopted in Afghanistan did not improve the initial unequal conditions; rather, it worsened them. What has been achieved in limited areas has not penetrated to the bottom and has only been intensified through creating divisions in the center-periphery situation. Most of the small material and physical resources are concentrated in Kabul Province, and the severe poverty of the surrounding provinces has been neglected. However, the severe economic inequality between urban and rural areas and the center and periphery is only one example of the inequality that this country is faced with. Inequality can also be proposed and investigated in other areas such as social status and acceptability, power, working conditions, accessibility to job opportunities, and the selection right, which requires further research. To reduce poverty and inequality, it is necessary to pay attention to development programs. In this regard, planning for easier and fairer access to health and treatment facilities and primary education is very helpful. The expansion of educational and health services in poor areas helps to break the cycle of poverty and reduce inequalities by increasing their capabilities.

Aim and Introduction :

Structural changes affect the share of final demand components in the whole economy. In fact, the importance of these changes is shown in the relative share of each of the economic sectors in terms of production and the factors used in production, If it causes economic growth through the organizational and institutional changes of the sectors.Therefore, structural changes are important and interesting topics in the world's economic research centers, and the results of these studies have important political implications. Since national and provincial credits are implemented in Iran every year in the form of numerous plans and projects, it is important to pay attention to this issue. First, it is necessary to determine the relative advantage of the provinces in order to optimally allocate credits in creating regional balances and to direct the provinces of the country towards regional specialization. Then credits should be allocated in the fields of growth and development and in order to create regional balances.

In this study, due to the lack of up-to-date statistical data in the provincial area, the analysis of structural changes and regional inequalities has been investigated based on three scenarios. In the first scenario, in order to examine structural changes and regional inequalities, the method of basic economic analysis and the measurement of shift share indicators has been used. In the second scenario, structural changes in the interaction between Iran's provinces have been investigated using Heckscher-Ohlin theory. And in the third scenario, economic complexity indicators have been used to compare and analyze the state of relative advantage of the investigated provinces.

The findings of the study are presented under three scenarios. The results of the application of the shift share model in the first scenario show the disproportionate growth of the employees of different sectors of the provinces in the period under review. This issue is shown in negative structural changes. In other words, the combination of activities in the provinces has been unequal. Also, the effects of neighboring provinces on each other due to the dimension of distance and growth spillover have been neglected.In the second scenario, the structural changes in the interaction between the provinces of the country have been investigated using Heckscher Ohlin's theory.And finally, in the third scenario, economic complexity indicators have been used to compare and analyze the relative advantage of the investigated provinces. The factor content of trade in different sectors showed that with the export of goods and services, production factors have been exported and in sectors where advanced technology is needed, intermediate and capital goods have been imported. In the third scenario, The achievability of the production of a product is confirmed by the complexity sub-indices according to the access to production factors for the production and export of goods in a province. Hence, the difference between the provinces in terms of the density index shows that in dense areas, the provinces have exported products with relative advantage. So that the provinces have provided the required capabilities for production and export of various products. Therefore, the maximum capability is available for the development of the user's product group. On the other hand, although the provinces have specialized in several commodity groups, which has caused high density in the province, they have not been able to develop significantly the space around the goods. It is noteworthy that these options are set only based on the analysis of inter-departmental relations and in many cases, various internal and external factors have been ignored. Therefore, it can only draw a view of the communication between departments in the provinces of the country. Among the causes and factors of inequality and differences in the growth pattern of the provinces, we can refer to the macro policies of the country, the inherent characteristics of the regions, the macro strategies of the country regarding industrial location and geographical distribution of activities. Also, the country's trade strategy in the field of developing the exports of some goods can affect the regional growth pattern.

Strategic sectors are not necessarily profitable economic sectors. But they can play the role of leadership and influence other sectors, and can spread the effects of growth and development to other economic sectors. Therefore, it can be said that employment policies should be adopted and applied based on the potential of the provinces. Then, investment should be made in the designated industries in the field of employment in each province. Then, increasing the level of interactions will bring many benefits to the provinces and ultimately to the country. Of course, the development of different provinces may not be compatible with each other in different sectors due to potential regional possibilities. In other words, although attention to macro policies is accepted as a principle in regional policy making. In fact, ignoring the possibilities, potential capacities, and relative advantages of each region and structural changes, leads to underdevelopment and inequality among regions. Hence, it is suggested that; Employment policies should be adopted and applied based on the relative advantage of the provinces at the country level to improve the favorable combination of industries and the lack of concentration of industries and the balanced distribution of employment. If there is a hidden comparative advantage, revealing this feature can be used as a reliable indicator in line with other macro indicators. It is worth noting that not paying attention to comparative advantage in the long run will be detrimental to Iran's growth. As well as considering the country's educated population and service users, it is necessary to put the development of productive services on the agenda of the country's planes.

Inequality is one of the basic problems of countries. So, it is very important to examine how income is distributed in a society. Therefore, many studies have been conducted in this regard, but in general, in the studies that used the common methods of calculating inequality, the inequality between different groups is ignored in determining the total inequality, therefore, researchers pay less attention to between-group inequality. In this study, in addition to calculating the inequality in Iran's occupational groups, the inequality between occupational groups has also been evaluated with the ANOVA coefficients approach. Since the measurement of inequality is normalized with these coefficients. For this purpose, household cost-income data during 2013-2019 in urban areas of Iran have been used. The results show that inequality has increased in the most occupational groups, but, it has been almost constant in the "administrative and clerical workers" and "artisans and workers in related occupations", and "administrative and clerical workers" has the best income distribution status and the "legislators, high-ranking officials and managers" has the highest level of inequality. Also, the results indicate that the share of inequality between occupational groups was approximately 50% and close to the share of inequality within groups.

One of the new ideas to reduce inequality and adjust the class gap is the "sharing economy" model. By creating "access instead of ownership", the sharing economy has provided the conditions for the low income deciles to use some life facilities in which there is a large class gap, and a part of the lack of consumption in the low deciles (caused by the lack of ownership) decreases.In this research, while introducing the "sharing economy" model in order to improve the inequality situation in the country, focusing on the issue of "trust" as the most important challenge of this economic model, an effort is made to design a mechanism to increase the level of trust in the sharing economy. , to provide the basis for inclusive and sustainable growth of this economic model in the country. For this purpose, by using the game theory and one of its sub-branches called mechanism design theory, a trust-building mechanism with the aim of increasing the level of trust in online accommodation sharing platforms. , the design and then the proposed mechanism is evaluated. The results of the evaluation show that the proposed mechanism in this research is "compatible with motivation", "individually rational", "efficient" and "has a balanced budget predicted in advance".