typology

In recent years, various approaches have been used to implement marketing activities and achieve companies' sales goals. One of the most widely adopted strategies is using different discount formats. A key challenge for companies is the effective utilization of product-appropriate discount formats. The lack of coherent knowledge about the types of discount formats and their impact on sales motivates this research. This study employed a mixed-methods approach and was conducted in two consecutive phases: qualitative and quantitative. One of the key issues in price discounts is framing them correctly and using appropriate formats that align with the product and discount conditions to maximize their effectiveness. Therefore, it is crucial to provide a comprehensive list of discount format types and consult sales experts to assess their effectiveness.
 
A mixed-methods approach was used, and the research was conducted in two consecutive phases. The first stage was carried out by systematically reviewing studies carried out in the last 10 years and using the three-step process of Turnfield et al. (2003), through which 87 articles were selected and analyzed. Then, the typology method was used for classification. To implement the typology stage, discount formats in the articles were coded using MAXQDA software, and a total of 55 codes for various discount formats were identified. This comprehensive list of discount codes is essential for the next step of researching and ranking discount formats. The codes of various discount formats were classified in a matrix based on the opinions of professors and experts, and the typology of discount formats was performed. The logic of the typology is based on whether the discount is cash or non-cash and the type of discount dependency (depending on the time of purchase, type of product, etc.). In the second stage, a quantitative study was conducted with a community of sales experts, and data was collected through a questionnaire. The discount formats identified in the first step were ranked, and the most effective discount formats on the company’s profit were identified, using the fuzzy TOPSIS method. Theoretical validity was assessed by gathering experts' opinions through theoretical pluralism. Quality was also evaluated by assessing reliability. To determine reliability, a doctoral student in Business Administration with a background in coding was invited to participate and we used the intra-subject agreement method of two coders (repeatability index), which was deemed acceptable with a reliability percentage above 60%. Moreover, the reliability of the codings was determined, and it can be claimed that the reliability of the articles’ analysis is acceptable through the systematic review. Of the 87 reviewed articles, 344 codes were extracted, of which 55 were non-repeated. The researchers asked the coding colleague to code 5 articles, and the results are presented in a table showing the reliability percentage. In the second phase, using the fuzzy TOPSIS technique, the decision matrix is purely a mathematical matrix through which the options are evaluated against the criteria. Therefore, the conceptual variable is not measured by criteria like statistical questionnaires, but only the score of each option in each criterion is determined by an expert. It does not represent a statistical questionnaire. Hence, since it is not a questionnaire, the validity and reliability do not apply to the decision matrix.
 
Based on the data analysis, in the first phase, the identified discount formats were classified into six categories, and in the second phase, the ranking list of ten selected formats was obtained. In the second stage of the research, after analyzing the data, managers and business experts were consulted to determine how and in what order they prioritized discount formats based on their impact on the company's profit. The results revealed the following prioritization: 1) Cash discount, 2) Percent discount, 3) Volumetric discount, 4) Event discount, and 5) Discount on customer performance.
 
If companies wish to implement discount programs in sales, they must first evaluate the suitable discount formats and then select the most appropriate one with careful consideration. Managing discounts by considering factors such as discount type, threshold, and timing can help prevent profit leakage and maximize the value provided by the firm

The development of small and medium businesses is one of the concerns of the policy makers and executives of the industrial development field in the country, and various strategies are envisioned for this purpose, especially by using the capacity of government support. The current research, which has been conducted with a qualitative-quantitative approach, tries to provide a framework for the typology of government support for these businesses and to provide policy and knowledge tips for professionals. Categorizing businesses with bases such as life cycle, technology, product and market on the one hand and evaluating the adopted strategy for the type of support with indicators such as responsiveness, cost-effectiveness, stability and sustainability and the amount of time required for a policy to be effective, on the other hand, a framework based on which all kinds of government support for small and medium businesses can be established. The findings of this research, its pattern and type of view can be considered as a basis for the targeted selection and development of supports.

The purpose of this research is to qualitative content analysis of the underlying approaches and theories of dynamic marketing capabilities and provide a comprehensive typology of them. Therefore, by reviewing the articles from foreign databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, as well as domestic databases of the country, using the qualitative content analysis and based on the theoretical sampling method, finally, 61 articles were selected and reviewed in the period from 2000 to 2023. The findings of the present research, while identifying various theoretical approaches and underlying theories related to them, have classified eight identified approaches into three general categories in the following order: the first category (primary approaches), including resource-based and knowledge-based approaches; the second category (intermediate approaches), including micro-foundations, multi-level (hierarchical), and process approaches; and the third category (new approaches), including system approaches, configuration, and capability architecture. The results also showed that by using more integrated approaches such as the systemic approach, hierarchical approach, and capability architecture by future researchers, it is possible to develop more executable frameworks and models in the field of marketing dynamic capabilities by examining the interaction and interweaving of various capabilities at different levels. The results also show that considering the necessity of self-sufficiency in the production of domestic goods and the importance of exporting non-oil products in the country, the approach of dynamic marketing capability provides the possibility for company managers to discover the obvious and hidden needs of customers by absorbing knowledge related to the market and accurate monitoring of environmental opportunities to offer new products and services according to the needs and demands of customers.

Adopting an educational approach to management can be considered as a humanizing method for human excellence in addition to the outputs of training managers at the national level. It should be noted that in recent years, looking at comprehensive education in all fields and dimensions, including strengthening education-oriented models with educational dimensions is in the spotlight (Hassani and Sadeghzadeh, 1400: 45). The focal point of this view is the interpretation of the Qur'an in assuming an approach that is seen in the verses related to the characteristics of management and manager. In other words, in the Qur'anic view, investigating the manager's characteristics is not only for expressing managerial duties but the educational progress of the individual and society, which is the ultimate goal of the Qur'anic movement. For this purpose, it is necessary first to address the issue of which managerial indicators the Qur'an has adopted in the education journey and the next stage, what style and format has been used for this purpose. The same approach in a new perspective to the typology and modeling of macro management indicators in the Qur'an has been examined through this article. In this regard, the present study tried to identify the types of macro management in the Quran and extract the descriptive model of each one in a comprehensive assessment of all the verses of the Quran and provide a step towards enriching and broadly looking at educational processes by inferring educational implications.

Due to its multifacetedness, the current research has used a combination of qualitative methods of data collection, analysis, and coding. In the first section, the descriptive phenomenological method is used to refer to the verses of the Holy Quran. Phenomenology is a qualitative research approach that seeks to identify the inherent and unchanging meaning of the problem under investigation (Chan, Fang, and Chin: 2013, quoted in Longdridge: 2007). The steps of this method are: 1. proposing a research question based on the model "What is the inherent existence of the phenomenon?" 2. Targeted sampling 3. Data collection 4. Data analysis (Abedi, 2019). Of course, these steps are not linear and are used back and forth. Based on the above steps, i.e. the question about the inherent pattern of the research phenomenon, first a research question was proposed with the theme: 1. "What are the macro management indicators introduced in the Qur'an, and what are the descriptions of each one?" 2. Targeted sampling that continued until the theoretical saturation of the categories and in the current research plan resulted in the reading of all the verses of the Holy Quran. 3. In the third stage, data collection was done by library method and by referring to the text of the Quran. 4. in the fourth step, the obtained data were analyzed using the MAXQDA Analytics Pro, version 12-3, and by referring again to the studied texts and comparing the above description with these texts, the results were validated. In the stage of selective coding, the types of macro management in the Qur'an were obtained. In the last stage, the comparative study of the central and open codes led to the extraction of religious analyses and educational meta-analyses.

The results of the research in response to the first question of the research, that is, what are the types and categories of indicators of macro management in the verses of the Quran indicates that there are 59 open codes related to the types of macro management in the Quran, which are classified into three categories input (management requirements), process (management qualities), and output (management tasks). The first category is divided into ten core codes, the second category into fourteen core codes, and the third category into sixteen core codes.The results of the research in response to the second question of the research, that is, are there any specific descriptions or accounts and what is the final model in each part indicates that the frequency of data based on the number of cases, first in the section on managerial duties, then in the section on recommending suitable traits, and in the next stage in the section on items necessary for education was more; but according to the column chart, the amount of recommendation for managerial traits has more content frequency. In the requirements section, the most frequency is related to the necessity of obeying the people and the necessity of financial facilities, in the process section, the two main attributes of science and faith, and in the management duties section, the two sections of financial management and solving the disputes of the desired society.The results of the research in response to the third research question, i.e. what are the educational implications derived from the explanation of the types and description of the models related to macro management indicators in the Quran represents eight principles of education, which include the following: the principle of relying on effort, the principle of educational rights and duties, the principle of a two-way approach to the dimensions of management and education, the principle of summation between different tasks, the principle of organizational perspective, the principle of unitary management, the principle of authority and intimacy, the principle of commitment and expertise.

Based on what the results of the current research and previous research show, all management researches emphasize the necessity of applying Islamic management in Islamic society, because the propositions within the religion in the section of presenting the principles have a different basis and approach from the secular and materialistic approaches. In the second point of view, although the general principles of management extracted in intra-religious research have similar main characteristics, it should be noted that the model extracted from Islamic management must be systematic and comprehensive and can cover all management processes in its entirety. The approach that current research has followed at the macro level, but previous research has not been able to achieve this level of data extraction and analysis due to the granular approach.Finally, it is suggested that according to the systematic extraction model based on this article, the components of Islamic macro management in three parts of input, process, and output, in the narrative texts and the biography and Sirah (conduct) of Ahlul-Bayt (peace be upon them) being analyzed and the complete version of this model should be cited and used as a source of training for Islamic managers.

Due to the existence of multiple complexities, space industries use different models for innovation than manufacturing industries with small projects. Non use the open innovation model suitable and compatible with the complexities in the country's space industry leads to the reduction of effective innovation. In this research, an attempt has been made to present the typology of the open innovation models of the world's space industries by using the meta- synthesis methodology and the review of reliable international sources. Accurately understanding the type of open innovation needed by the country's space industry is a fundamental step in planning the move towards a developed space country. Finally, in this article, 68 optional codes, 25 categories and 5 key themes and 3 species extracted in the research are presented. Open innovation based on crowdsourcing, open innovation based on joint collaborations, and open innovation based on outsourcing are the types identified in this research. In this research, it was found that open innovation in leading space organizations is more based on the use of crowdsourcing to solve problems rather than solely on the basis of outsourcing. Emerging space organizations are also more likely to take advantage of joint corporation with industry and university rather than contracting independently with industry or university.

Following environmental changes and challenges in the current century, environmental protection has become one of the concerns of consumers. While the focus of many businesses is on sustainability, corporate social responsibility and green action, some companies make false claims of greenwashing actions by environmental activities, thus seeking to gain and maintain their legitimacy and place in the minds of consumers. The concept of greenwashing appeared in the middle of the 1980s to describe abusive practices or exaggerating sustainability claims to gain market share. On the other hand, greenwashing is defined as misleading or deceptive environmental claims and disseminating false information by organizations to promote the public image of the company's environmental responsibility. The importance of paying attention to the phenomenon of greenwashing is because it not only causes confusion and doubts among consumers but also potentially eliminates the need for innovation in green products. Therefore, the present study was conducted with the aim of providing a comprehensive typology of the greenwashing measures of companies.

With the aim of providing a typology of the greenwashing practices of companies, this study has done an in-depth review of 11,718 articles in the field of greenwashing published in databases from 1986 to 2022 with a scoping review method.

With the analysis conducted on the existing typologies in 38 selected articles, a new and different and comprehensive typology of the greenwashing phenomenon is presented in this study based on four dimensions, including environmental reports, environmental performance, greenwashing levels, and the dimension of how to show environmental performance. Therefore, through combining the mentioned dimensions in the proposed model, 16 types of companies are identified under the headings of green companies and with the execution of green strategies. The include green companies claiming green strategies, brown companies executing greenwash strategies, brown companies claiming greenwash strategies, green companies executing the characteristics of green products, green companies claiming the characteristics of green products, brown companies with executional of greenwash products, brown companies claim greenwash products, green companies without executing green strategies, green companies without claiming green strategies, brown companies without executing greenwash strategies, brown companies without claiming greenwash strategies, green companies without executing the characteristics of green products, green companies without claiming the characteristics of green products, brown companies without executing greenwash products, brown companies without claiming greenwash products.

The first group, namely green companies, refers to those that have good environmental performance in line with the use of acceptable green strategies. These companies seek to display their strategies in various ways, including providing positive environmental reports. In other words, green companies seek to gain and maintain legitimacy and competition in the market by showing their green strategies. This group of companies can, thus, be named obvious strategic greenwashing companies. The second group, green companies with appropriate performance in the field of environment, present positive environmental reports and highlight their environmental strategic claims. They can be named obvious strategic greenwashing companies. Another group of green companies are operating ones with good environmental performance. They want to display the green and environmentally friendly features of their products, which is done through images and association elements. Naturalization with colors (such as green, blue) or sounds (such as the sound of the sea, birds) evokes the feeling of the naturalness of the product in people. This group of companies can be named obvious greenwashers. There are also companies operating in the markets that bring the features of their products to the attention of consumers and stakeholders through making claims in environmental reports. This category of companies can be named green companies claiming the characteristics of green products. They can also be named obvious greenwashers. The other group is green companies that, despite using appropriate environmental strategies and having an acceptable green performance, do not want to show their activities. This group of companies can be named strategic silent greenwashers. Similarly, considering the groups based on four dimensions and 16 types of companies introduced in the proposed model of this research, it is possible to distinguish the activities of companies that really have green actions from companies that have greenwashing activities and to prevent the greenwashing activities of those companies. Therefore, necessary measures should be taken in various industries and a solution should be found for the current activities of greenwash companies. The findings of this research indicate that, in order to reduce the damages of greenwashing on the consumer, the environment and other groups, this phenomenon should be considered as a kind of fraud, and the opportunities and justifications of greenwashing should be reduced. Future researchers can use this typology to identify and prevent greenwashing practices of companies active in various industries

This study seeks to know the different types of behavior of managers in facing the psychological challenges of employees during Covid-19 in order to help the organization achieve its goals by creating coordination with other components. For this purpose, 21 managers were interviewed using the narrative research method and 507 primary codes were extracted. Then, using theme analysis, 74 concepts for employees' psychological challenges and 130 concepts for managers' behavior in facing these challenges were discovered, and finally 18 final categories for employees' psychological challenges and 30 final categories for managers' behavior were identified. In the typology section, the final categories of managers' behavior were classified in two dimensions of Accepting the manager's behavior (high/low) and employee morale (strong/weak) and four main types were obtained based on these two dimensions. Types of managers' behavior were identified with the titles of developing, motivating, directing and moderating behaviors. By choosing the appropriate behaviors and paying attention to the morale and acceptance of the employees in choosing these behaviors, in addition to maintaining the morale of the employee, managers also gain more influence over the employees and can accompany the employees to reduce psychological challenges and achieve organizational success.

The text highlights the significance of having skilled employees for successful organizations, including police organizations, which spend considerable resources on attracting, retaining, and promoting their employees. The focus is on the importance of providing training courses to familiarize employees with new working methods and promote innovation. The research aims to identify the attitude of police employees towards training courses.

Based on the Q method on compulsory cards and a targeted sample of 22 people who have had a history of attending Police training over ten years and with 14 statements with content validity of 0.82 and face validity of 0.89, as well as reliability with a correlation coefficient of 87%. The statistical analysis of the data was done using the multivariate factor analysis method and through SPSS.

Based on the correlation between the ranking of people, it was found that 20 participants played an essential role in forming the first and second factors equally, and two people in the third factor. In the identification of critical factors using the percentage of explanation of the variance of the elements, the primary identified factors are in a total of 86% of the typical mentality of the participants, as well as 51% of the first factor, 28% of the second and 6% of the third.

Three mindsets of interested, self-interested and critical towards training courses were identified, and there should be a balance between the cost and benefit of training courses while also considering increasing efficiency and effectiveness.

The orchestration strategy is the process of complementary network leadership to achieve a collective goal in platform businesses. The aim of the present study is to typologize the theories that shape the orchestration strategy in platform businesses. The present research has been from the perspective of the basic purpose, from the perspective of the qualitative approach, from the perspective of data collection and from the type of library studies. The present study is fundamental and by adopting a qualitative approach, in terms of data collection has been documentary and library research. The research strategy is based on qualitative content analysis. Relevant articles were extracted using systematic searches in reputable international databases, and finally 48 studies were identified for final reviews. In the end, 25 basic theories of orchestration strategy were identified and categorized in the form of 4 approaches including The Natural Selection View(Stakeholders, transaction cost, game theory, economies of scale and economies of scope), The Collective-Action View(Ecosystems, network based, strategic alliances, social exchange and open innovation), The System-Structural View(Strategic learning, systems, modular systems, complex adaptive systems, real options, architecture and information asymmetry) and The Strategic Choice View(Dynamic capabilities, strategic leadership, resource orchestration, Open Resource-Based, Creating shared value, organizational boundary management, strategic communication and perception management).

TheTransition theory is mainly used to move from a dominant technology to a new and innovative technology. The Studies of the typology of transition pathways have shown that the transition to new technologies includes four main pathways. But in some studies, it has been emphasized to review this matter and the possibility of other pathways. Therefore, the aim of the study is to describe the typology of transition pathways by review the literature and identify possible pathways. The study method was a systematic literature review with content meta-analysis approach. The statistical population is papers on the typology of transition pathways that were published during 2010-2022. The transition pathways among the selected papers were compared in terms of 24 characteristics, which were also adapted from the systematic literature review. Finally, in terms of these characteristics and especially the three main characteristics (perspective pressure, maturity and regime resistance), 12 new transition pathways were identified. The identified pathways include 5 main pathways (reproduction, transformation, technological substitusion, reconfiguration and de-alignment and re-alignment), each of which was categorized into two gradual and pure pathways, as well as two hybrid pathways, “de-alignment and re-alignment and technological substitusion”, which It happens sequentially or simultaneously, and the pathway of “gradual reconfiguration and transformation simultaneously”.

Public research institutes are a type of research and development organizations that have been created with the investment of governments to meet the research needs of the public sector. They have a large number and variety in different countries. Therefore, a proper understanding of the requirements and characteristics of these types of organizations, as well as knowing the main features that differentiate them from each other, is very important for managers and policy makers in the technology field at different levels. In this paper, an attempt has been made to present the typology of these public organizations by applying a meta-synthesis approach and reviewing international original articles, as well as studying documents and annual performance reports of 30 top research institutes in Iran. For this purpose, in the first step and by applying meta-synthesis method, the existing literature was reviewed and the results of text analysis were categorized in the form of 32 selected codes, 9 categories, and 3 themes as indicators of differentiation of these institutions. Then, the selected sample of research institutes was evaluated in the identified concepts to determine their status in each category in accordance with the existing documentation. The results of this research have identified two main types, including research institutes with the mission of supporting science and technology policymaking and research institutes with the mission of creating economic value, as well as two subtypes including a combination of the above two missions and the mission of technology transfer in Iran which have different characteristics. This typology can be used in the recognition, policy making, planning, evaluation and better management of these key actors of the national innovation system.

Conflicts of interest have been at the heart of many recent economic crimes. The first step in the management of conflict of interest is to provide a clear and exact definition of the term. This study attempts to coalesce various definitions of the term utilizing scoping review methodology.  The data collection tool was a reference to studies conducted based on the conflict of interest in the field of public administration. For data analysis, the qualitative indicators were identified in order to examine the conducted studies. The study identifies four main types of conflict of interest for public sector agents: financial interest of a public sector agent, non-financial interest of a public sector agent, financial interest of relatives, and non-financial interest of relatives. As long as the financial interest of the government agent is the focal point, the analysis of other types of conflict of interest in legislation system, reforms, and structural observation is overlooked. If legislative system and structural reforms limit themselves to the financial interest of the government agent, more than half of the conflict of interest cases of the government agent will be neglected. The management of conflict of interest will be on a right track once a comprehensive definition of the term is presented, a feature which forms the main concern of this paper.

Today, the concept of openness has spread in organizations and organizations have shown a special interest in open approaches, among which open strategy is also part of the broad social trend and tendency towards greater openness. Open strategy is a multifaceted phenomenon that is evolving rapidly and requires more knowledge. In this article, an attempt is made to examine the concept of open strategy in a more detailed way with the help of meta-combined qualitative research method. Finally, 38 articles in the period 1990 to 2020 with the focus on open strategy were selected and analyzed qualitatively by reviewing the Scopus database. In this research, the most important definitions presented in this field are identified and then according to the multiplicity of definitions, characteristics and approaches used with a more general look at the typology of introducing open strategy. The results show that the methods of identifying and defining open strategy can be divided into 5 categories: philosophical, dimensional, scope of application, process and level of analysis. From the point of view of philosophical foundations, the open strategy approach is mainly subjective and in the postmodern paradigm. From a dimensional point of view, it has two main dimensions of transparency and comprehensiveness, each of which has sub-dimensions. The range of different applications of this phenomenon is known in the form of eight approaches. From a process point of view, it has three important typologies and from the level of analysis, it is known in two ways: number or type. The details and characteristics of these 5 categories are mentioned in detail in the article. It is worth noting that the dynamic and effective nature of open strategy and different ways of looking at this area, suggests that researchers should make more efforts to better understand this new phenomenon.

Consumer reactions to goods and services are not just positive. Sometimes, after using a certain brand, there are situations in the person that have a negative aspect. These conditions are called brand hatred. Accordingly, the main purpose of the present study was the typology of brand hatred. This study is based on the purpose of the application and in terms of how to collect descriptive-survey data. The statistical population of this study is all students of Khorramabad universities who use mobile phone brands. Assuming an unlimited statistical population and relying on the Cochran's sampling formula with the non-probabilistic sampling method, 380 students were identified as the sample. The required data were collected using a questionnaire whose content validity was collected with the opinion of professors and experts in marketing and brand management and its reliability was confirmed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Relationship analysis in this study was performed using structural equation modeling test with partial least squares approach using SMART-PLS software. The results show that the three components of hatred, anger and contempt play a role in the formation of brand hatred. Also, brand hatred leads to consequences, the most important of which is brand change. In addition, the results show that consumers are more inclined to take indirect revenge on the brand in what they hate about the brand. Based on this, the findings of this study can be used to develop strategies for managing customer relationship management with the use of managers of brand-oriented organizations.

The Holy Defense, as one of the historical periods that ended with the victory of the Iranian nation, has lessons and teachings that should be studied by researchers and become a model and theory. Commanding style of commanders is one of the important aspects of that period that has been considered in the present study. Twenty commanders of the Holy Defense were studied in a library method, considering the diversity of command positions, reputation, and the availability of resources. The obtained documents were coded and analyzed with a qualitative approach and content analysis method, and after validation in two stages, four styles of jihadi command were identified in the commanders of that time: "Creative consequentialism (focusing on the goal based on intelligence)", "Authoritarian consequentialism (attention to the goal based on authority)", "Wise staffing (attention to forces based on intelligence)" And "strong support (focusing on force based on authority)."

Fake news has become a serious ploy in marketing and consumers’ behavior, which may harm brands and companies. Although fake news is an old concept, its nature and form have been changing and are spreading online. In some cases, such fake news is accompanied by a video or an image, which is being reproduced at a very large scale with the maximum speed. On the other hand, the general popularity of social networks and online information has made it a critical issue in Iran. Thus, it is essential to address this issue. In general, this study aims to identify and present different types of fake news and respective dimensions in the context of Iran.
 
This study is based on the constructivist-interpretive and postmodern paradigms, and the ontology of the present study is idealistic. In this qualitative and fundamental study, the data were collected through semi-structured in-field interviews. The statistical population included social media users in Iran. The judgmental, non-probability, and snowball sampling methods were used, and theoretical saturation was obtained after conducting 16 interviews. The theoretical thematic analysis was used to examine the data. In addition, data analysis was performed using Atlas.ti 8 software.
 
Five fake news were identified for the first time in Iranian context. However, two of them (pseudoscience and fake political news) have already been mentioned in the political literature. Fake health news, fake denial news, and fake governmental news are presented for the first time in this article. These findings are based on the meaning map extracted from the interviewees and indicate how they relate to the minds of consumers. Moreover, different dimensions of fake news have been discussed, and their definitions and characteristics have been provided.
Marketers should be aware that official sources of information may be detrimental to their brands. Besides, any close relationships with the Iranian government may negatively affect their brand image. Consumers prefer informal information channels. In addition, lack of awareness and illusion of knowledge are two critical issues that should be taken into account in the interpretation of fake news on social networks in the context of Iran. Accepting fake news as the expiating information in the country's consumption context, its typology, and taking appropriate steps to provide information to the consumers can help maintain the reputation and image of the brand and product.

Today, human resources are considered as the most important asset in order to gain a sustainable competitive advantage in organizations. Employees' behavior and attitude toward work is an important factor in achieving the goals of the organization. The main purpose is the typology of toxic employees in governmental organizations in Gilan province. The research method in this study is qualitative and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data. The statistical population included managers and specialists in the field of human resources of government organizations in Gilan province, that 15 people were selected using purposive sampling. In order to analyze the data, by performing content analysis with inductive approach, the characteristics of toxic employees were classified in to 10 categories. Then typological analysis was applied on the obtained classes. The typological construction in this study was based on an operational strategy and finally, based on two dimensions of toxicity (low/ high) and consequences of toxic behaviors (individual/ organizational), four types of toxic employees named A,B,C and D were identified in governmental organizations of Gilan province. The findings of this study showed that personal, family, organizational and environmental contexts play a role in the formation of toxic employees and the presence of toxic employees in governmental organizations leads to consequences for employees and the organization. Also, the methods of exposure and treatment of toxic employees were divided into two categories of prevention and treatment. We came to the definition that toxic employees are individuals who, for personal, family, organizational, and environmental reasons, engage in intentional and contagious behaviors that are contrary to the values and norms of the organization and cause harm to the organization, its Employees and assets.

Environmental changes and increasing global competition have increased the importance of the issue of delegation of authority. The current generation of organizations seeks more effectiveness through of delegation of authority because it affects job satisfaction, employee leadership, employee performance, human resource productivity and various other areas of the organization, but still in the organization have not been implemented properly and in this regard organizations have faced the phenomenon of non-delegation. The main purpose of this study is to explore Mental Patterns in light of non-delegation of authority. In this regard, in this study, the research literature has been studied in order to define the mental patterns of the reasons for not delegating authority of managers with the application of Q methodology. Applying the non-delegation typology to the design field of an organization can enhance the current understanding of this typology. Finally, based on the research findings, practical suggestions are provided for five mental patterns (power-seeker managers, monopolistic or octopus managers, passivist managers, negativist managers, and infrastructuralist managers).

Technology strategy is one of the most important tools of technology management. Despite the abundance of literature on the subject, there has been limited research on technology strategy formulation for large and multi-businesses firms. Thus, this article focuses on the study of technology strategy development activities in a large economic organization to document and analyze these activities and compare them with the common methods using the documents and interviews. Based on the results, a new classification is proposed which includes four technology strategies for improvement, competition, reconfiguration and transformation. The research results show that the necessary mastery in technology management concepts is not noticed at the different levels of the organization, and accordingly, most of the appropriate activities expected from the holding companies to develop the strategies have not been accomplished. Although the pressure of senior managers is the main reason for formulating the technology strategy, its lack of continuity in the medium term has led to the lack of full implementation and failure to evaluate the results. Further, formulation of the technology strategy is time- consuming and there are many knowledge gaps and deficiencies in the field of technology management. Therefore, it is recommended that an integrated approach be adopted that includes implementation, evaluation of results and change of structures. Furthermore, it is recommended that defining the life cycle, the way of acquiring technology and the timing of product introduction be taken into consideration.