diet

The purpose of this study is to examine the issue of nutrition and diet in ancient times among great civilizations such as Iran, Greece, China, Egypt and Rome. If an attempt has been made to explain proper nutrition, food abstinence and the favorite food basket of each of the civilizations in question and the reasons for observing their nutritional issues. In this study, which is a review study, using available sources with titles such as; Nutrition in ancient times, the diet of the great civilizations of the ancient world and attention to proper nutrition and food among the great civilizations of the ancient world, the desired and related materials have been collected. The topic of nutrition has always been a subject to be pondered in all history. Proper nutrition and its effect in some times and sometimes the treatment of diseases starts from ancient times and is gradually transferred to the next periods and in each transfer, progress and effects have been improved along with the conditions of the people of each region as well as their weather conditions. Therefore, this issue of nutrition has been given special attention in different regions and every day we see the expansion and growing trend of this category. The materials collected in this study show the increasing attention to the category of nutrition and diet, as well as the selection of a suitable food basket according to the nature of people and the living conditions of civilizations, from ancient times to the present day, so that the field of more and more comprehensive investigation in it provides this.

Most tilapias are microphytic, but some prefer higher plants. The aim of this study was to evaluate the histomorphology of liver and enzymes under the influence of replacing blood powder with fish powder in the diet of Nile tilapia. After preparation, fish were fed with designed diets containing 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% blood powder for 8 weeks, and each treatment was performed with three replications. After this period, the fish were anesthetized and blood samples were taken from the caudal stalk with a heparin syringe for liver enzymatic factors. The tissue samples were taken 0.5 cm from the liver, fixed in 10% formalin buffer, and after dehydration with alcohol, clarification with xylol, blocking with paraffin, cutting 4-6 microns thick with microtome were done. General and specific staining were performed and the study of microscopic slides was performed under a light microscope. The results of this study showed that in the group receiving whole blood powder, several complications such as sinusoidal hyperemia, diffuse vacuolar degeneration, necrosis of hepatocytes, and melanomacrophage were observed. The results of liver enzyme measurements in the treatment group had a higher level than the control group, with the difference that the level of ALT and AST had a more important role and the level of ALP had a lesser role. According to the results of this study, blood powder in the diet is somewhat tolerable and replaceable for the species.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of substituting the dietary fish meal with blood powder on some blood immune factors of Nile tilapia. 150 speciemns of tilapia (30 ± 0.5 g) were fed diets containing 0 (control group), 25, 50, 75, and 100 % of blood powder, each in three replicates for 8 weeks. After this period, fish were anesthetized and the blood samples were taken from the caudal peduncle of fish with a heparinized syringe for evaluating the blood immune indicators. No significant differences were observed in ACH50, glucose, and triglyceride among the blood powder-fed fish and the control group (P>0.05). The highest reported value of ACH50 (148.36±23.13), was observed in 75% treatment and the highest values of glucose (145.72±21.44) and triglyceride (451.68±49.61) were observed in 100% blood powder fed treatment. However, there were significant differences in the activity of lysozyme, immunoglobulin, total protein, and cholesterol in the groups receiving blood powder with different percentages compared to the control group (P<0.05).  The results of this research showed that it is possible to replace fish meal with blood powder in the diet of Nile tilapia due to its strengthening effect on immune system.

Silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, is a plankton filter feeder fish and introduced to Chitgar Lake since 9 years ago. In this study, the effect of silver carp stocking was evaluated on the phytoplankton structure of Chitgar Lake at different seasons in 2018. Samples were caught with gill-net, beach seine and cast-net gears. The results obtained from 51 individuals with a total length of 111-473 (average total length of 325.8±134.6) mm showed that coefficient of vacuity, averages of relative gut length and feeding intensity were 0.00%, 5.91±1.65 and 628.4±274.7, respectively and therefore it showed over eating, herbivory and good feeding intensity in this fish. Silver carp fed on 32 phytoplankton and 11 zooplankton genera and phytoplankton and zooplankton were observed in 100% and 88% of studied specimens, respectively. Synedra, Navicula, Staurastrum and Cyclotella were the dominant phytoplankton genera (30.0, 22.2, 13.8 and 12.1%, respectively) and Bosmina and Alona were the dominant genera of zooplankton (84.0 and 7.2%, respectively). There were no seasonal changes in feeding intensity but there were seasonal changes in food items dominance. Releasing of 20000-30000 individuals of silver carp with a weight 50-100 g is suggested in order to protect water quality of Chitgar lake annually.

The main objective of this study was to investigate the effect of blood type of different animals on leech reproductivity, egg numbers, size and weight of each cocoon. To do this, three different blood types of a cow, hens and frogs were studied to measure the rate of medicinal leech Hirudo orientalis reproduction. According to statistical analysis, there was a significant difference between leech final weights (after feeding) (P<0/05). Leeches consumed more blood from cow compared to hens and frogs. They also consumed the least amount of blood from frogs. Results revealed that the cocoons obtained from leeches fed with cow blood were heavier and longer than that of other two groups while, the leeches fed with frog blood showed the lowest weight and length among the experimental groups (P<0.05). Reproduction, survival and hatching rate in leeches were, respectively, 15.29, 90 and 95.29% for cow blood, 11.44, 83.33 and 93.75% for hen blood and 7.17, 76.66 and 92.68% for frog blood. The results of this study indicated that the type of blood can affect the reproduction, survival and hatching rate in leeches. Based on the results of this study cow blood is recommended for leech cultivation. The results achieved in this study can be used in the leech breeding industry.

This research was conducted to evaluate the diet of juvenile roach (Rutilus caspicus) stocked in earthen ponds and improve the pond conditions to increase the dominant organisms species. Four earthen ponds with the same hydrobiological properties were studied in the Syjwal bony fish farm. Sampling of the food organisms, measuring the weight and length of the juvenile roaches, and gut examination were carried out over a four-month period from March to June. The results indicated that the highest and the lowest condition factors (K) were 1.196 and 0.633, respectively; while the highest dominance index (Ip) was reported as 42.14 for Gastropoda and the lowest dominance index was reported as 2.4 for aquatic insects. The results of (Fp) analysis showed that the gastropoda and crayfish were mainly considered as the major preys, and organisms such as aquatic insects and bivalves were found as the minor foods in the Syjwal earthen ponds. Evaluation of the food preference (Fp)and the gut content of juvenile roaches in different stages indicate that the gastropoda show a higher food preference and feeding intensity than the other Foods.

Nowadays, the entrance of nanoparticles into high seas has led to toxic effects on aquatic organisms. Copper oxide nanoparticles is among the most widely used nanoparticles. The presence of these nanoparticles in the aquatic environments cause new environmental problems, which indicate the necessity of the examination of the effects of these nanoparticles on the aquatic organisms. The alfalfa plant has antioxidantive and regenerative effects due to its rich content of proteins, vitamin C and flavonoids. In this study, 6 (5 experimental and a control) groups were designed. Koi fish larvae were fed with biomar combined with various percentages of hay (0%, 10% and 20%) and were exposed to copper oxide nanoparticles with two concentrations (0 mg and 200 mg) for 14 days. The average initial length of larvae was 30.4 ± 0.01 mm, their average initial weight was 0.31 ± 0.05 and their age was around 20 dph. The specific growth rate, weight gain, length gain, survival rate and feed conversion ratio were calculated for each group. The results showed a significant higher growth rate in the groupstreated with 10% and 20% of alfalfa, as compared with the control group. In addition, the Cu NPs-treated group with 0% alfalfa rations showed the lowest rate of growth, as compared with the control group. Groups which were exposed to copper nanoparticles while receiving alfalfa-containing rations had growth indices better than the group exposed to copper nanoparticles and fed with 0% alfalfa ration, which indicated the antioxidant properties and growth-promoting effects of alfalfa.

in the inland waters of Iran and little is known about this species in Iranian waters. In this study, some biological characteristics of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) as an exotic fish were examined in 355 specimens collected monthly from Beheshtabad River of Chaharmahal & Bakhtiari Province during April 2013 to March 2014. Total length of females and males ranged from 17.1 to 40.2 cm (26.05±4.54SD) and from 15.5 to 40.3 cm (24.9±5.93), respectively. Among all the examined stomachs, 39 were empty (Vacuity index, Vi= 11%). This variation was not significantly diffrent (P˃0.05) over the year and the maximum number of empty stomachs was recorded during the spring and the minimum during the autumn. The diet of the rainbow trout was composed of 45 different prey taxa, belonging to 10 main classes. The most important prey items were Annelida (Oligochaeta and Hirudinea), Platyhelminthes (Turbellaria), Arthropoda (Crustacea, Insecta and Archanida), Mollusca (Gastropoda and Lamellibranchiata), Coelenterata (Cnidaria) and Teleostei. Hirudinea, Crustacea, Insecta, Gastropoda, Teleostei and Lamellibranchiata were the most important prey items in all seasons. Crustacea, Insecta, Gastropoda and Teleostei were the most important prey items in all months. Sex did not appear to have any significant effects on the diet composition and on the main prey items consumed by the fish. Fish size showed significant effects on diet composition and the average size of prey increased with fish size. The rainbow trout could be considered a carnivorous fish, feeding on a wide range of prey items.

The present study was to investigate the effect of various dietary levels of unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA and PUFA) on some morphometric features of duodenum in newly weaned rainbow trout larvae. Therefore, eight different experimental diets consisted of various dietary levels of HUFA (0, 0.5, 1 and 2 percent) at a fixed dietary PUFA of 20 percent (the first experiment) and various dietary PUFA levels (10, 20, 30 and 40 percent) at a fixed dietary HUFA of 8 percent (the second experiment) were formulated. Stocking density of larvae was 100 larvae per each container and the experiments lasted for six weeks. At the end of the experiments, six fish were randomly taken and the proximal intestine was dissected out and fixed for classical histological studies. In the first experiment concomitant with any increase in dietary HUFA content, epithelial thickness and villous height significantly decreased (P<0.05) and according to the results the appropriate HUFA level could be 0.5 percent of the dietary lipid moiety. However, in the second experiment only villous height of duodenum was affected by experimental diets (P<0.05) and villous height was the highest (207.2±10.3μm) at PUFA level of 20 percent of the total dietary lipid. In conclusion, it is recommended that in the case of using vegetable oils in feed formulation (to replace marine lipid sources) led to higher PUFA levels, dietary HUFA levels could be increased to eight percent for keeping normal intestine morphometry.

The formation of mycotoxins in feedstuffs is a worldwide issue affecting digestive physiology of aquatic animals and resulting in lower animal performance. Total of 540 rainbow trout with an average body weight of 3±0.2 g were allotted to 9 distinct treatments including various dietary levels of aflatoxin B1 (0, 25 and 50 ppb) and zearalenone (0, 200 and 400 ppb) for 4 weeks. At the end of the trial, pyloric ceaca samples were taken for determining alkaline protease, lipase and amylase activity. Results revealed that feeding on diets contaminated with aflatoxin B1 and zearalenone for 4 weeks did not significantly affect alkaline protease activity (p<0.05), however, did significantly affect lipase and amylase activity of rainbow trout fingerlings (p<0.05). The highest lipase activity was recorded in control group (feeding on diet devoid of any mycotoxins) and treatment co-contaminated with containing 25 ppb aflatoxin B1 or 200 ppb zearalenone. However, the lowest lipase activity belonged to treatments contaminated with only 400 ppb zearalenone or 25 ppb aflatoxin B1. The highest amylase activity was assayed in group fed on diet without any mycotoxin contamination in comparison to those fed diet contaminated with any levels (25 or 50 ppb) of aflatoxin B1 (p<0.05). It can be concluded that co-contamination with both aflatoxin B1 and zearalenone reduced their negative effect on lipase activity of fish.

Inroduction & One way to evaluate the physiological characteristics of the fish to determine the blood that is superior to other methods, easier and less costly. In this study, determination and comparison of some blood factors rainbow trout fed with manual and commercial (pellet) food diet was done.
Testing for 8 weeks in both groups, with a total of 60 fish from each group were done. Blood samples were collected from the fish using the caudal vein cut and each blood parameters in hematology laboratory values were measured.
: the results of this study showed that blood on the white blood cells, red blood cells, hemoglobin, hematocrit trout fed commercial diets and manual significant difference(P 0.05) and the mean corpuscular volume, corpuscular hemoglobin, neutrophils, lymphocytes and eosinophils, there is no difference(P> 0.05). The results showed that blood biochemical parameters of glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides, creatinine, phosphorus, chloride, iron and albumin significantly different(P 0.05), but the amount of calcium, potassium, sodium, urea and total protein no there is no significant difference(P> 0.05). Also, in terms of Spar aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase significant difference between the two groups(P 0.05).
The results of this study suggest that the type of diet can affect blood indices fish.

Inroduction & Mineral materials are the most important part of the fish nutrition subjects diet because they represent a very low quantity in the diet but they have a high effect on fish physiology and metabolism. The aim of this study was investigate the effect of different level of zinc sulfate (ZnSo4) on hematocrit and hematology for assess the effects of this mineral matter on goldfish health.
Experimental diets prepared with four levels(four treatments and each treatment include three repetitions) 0, 25, 75 and 125 mg/kg. Healthy fish with average weight 3.3 ± 0.10 and average length 3.5 ± 0.2 was maintained in 400 liter tanks with temperature 28 ± 1, pH 7.5 ± 0.5 and hardness 286 ± 1.2 and feed for 60 days and end the trial hematocrit and hematology parameter was measured.
Result of analysis the hematological parameter of fish feed with different levels of zinc showed that white blood cells (WBC), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean cell hemoglobin (MCH) and mean cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) in our experimental treatments did not show a significant difference (p≥0.05) but in red blood cells (RBC), hematocrit (Ht) and hemoglobin (Hb) there was significant difference between treatments (p≤0.05). Red blood cell count, hematocrit and hemoglobin in zinc sulfate treatments (treatments 2, 3 and 4) had higher values and the highest value was in group 4 (150 mg kg zinc sulfate), which there was significant difference between 2 and 3 treatments also had a significant difference with control group.
The results shows that zinc in the diet stimulate the immune system and can have positive effects on the health and hematological factors of goldfish.

Diet of kingfish was examined in the Iranian coastal waters in the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea during the year 2005-08. With the examination of 1655 kingfish stomachs caught by drifting gillnets, it was revealed that this species fed three groups of preys including fish, Cephalopods, and Crustaceans, of which the fish group accounted for the highest in the frequency of number (99.3%) and in the frequency of occurrence (99.1%). Nine families for the fish group, one family for Cephalopods and one family of Crustaceans were identified, with totally fifteen species were identifiable. In fish group, Engraulididae and Clupeidae families had the highest frequency of number (22% and 13.5% in respective family) and the highest frequency of occurrence (8.4% and 14.4% of the total stomachs examined in respective family), which Clupeidae seems to be a preferred food for kingfish in the coastal waters. Feeding intensity of kingfish is higher when the peaks of small pelagic catches occurred in spring and winter in the coastal waters. Because of the importance of Sardines and Anchovies in the feeding of kingfish, it is necessary to harvest the valuable resource of the small pelagic fish.

In this study, the effects of different diets on growth rates of Gammarus Pontogammarous meoticus were determined. A biomass of 1.5 g Gammarus with an average length of 7 ± 0.25 mm was transferred to the glass aquaria with volume 900 cm3 (volume 2.5 l). The Gammarus were fed with diets include baked potato (treatment 1), 30 percent yeast and 70 percent potato, (treatment 2), 50 yeast percent and 50 percent potato (treatment 3), no feeding (treatment 4) at rate of 6 to 7 percent of total biomass for 45 days. Results showed that the total production rate (adult and baby), specific growth rate and population doubling time were significantly high in treatments 2 and 3(P > 0.05). The biomass and daily growth rate were significantly higher than yeast fed Gammarus (P> 0.05). Additionally Gammarus in treatment 3 had the highest food conversion ratio. The results of the present study showed that the administration of yeast in diet can improve Gammarus growth rate under culture conditions.

Schizocypris bruceibelongs to the family Cyprinidae is economic and native in the region of Sistan. In the reproductive season (April 2009), 36 number anjak fish in Hamoun Wetlands and Zabul were analyzed. After catching with fixed net the fish and transferred to the laboratory after biometric, morphometric - meristic characters, Fecundity and diet were determined. According to the results, average standard length was 15/4± 1/70 cm (12/9-19/5cm) Average lateral line scales of 92/1 ± 8/95 (76-113), body weight of 55/5± 14/45 g (38/4-87/4 g), average total length of 18/5± 1/99 cm (15/4-23/5 cm), ovarian weight 2/43± 2/18 (0/51-6/91 g), the absolute fecundity 4332/26± 3316/67 (1966/96-14077/4 number of eggs), egg diameter, 0/83± 0/21 mm (0/6-1.25 mm), average relative fecundity 69/83±43/37 (45/67-190/38), index average length of intestine in body length 7/00±1/39 (4/76-9/24), index the average growth rate 876/5±115/87 (647/5-1101/7) and index colon weight to total weight of fish, 0/06± 0/028(0/03-0/135). Also pull out the digestive tract of fish, food eaten were identified. According to the results obtained in all cases, spiral intestine of food remnants being degraded and was undetectable and the combined sludge and residue formed. Thus, according to a survey conducted diet of fish was vegetarian. Overall, little difference between the minimum and maximum total length represent the total weight of fish in this lifetime is very low and the low reproductive age shows.