soluble sugars

Drought, one of the major ecological limiting factors, has a significant effect on the growth and secondary metabolic process of medicinal plants. Water stress reduces the size, density, leaf surface of the plant and reduces the biomass, and not only changes the plant structurally, but also leads to fluctuations in their secondary chemical compounds. The present study was carried out to investigate the effect of using brassinolides and surfactant on drought stress tolerance on Sarkhargol medicinal plant at Islamic Azad University of Mahabad during 2016 - 2017. The studied factors include dryness at three irrigation levels of 70, 120 and 170 mm, evaporation from class A pan as the main factor, surfactant consumption at two levels (0 and 0.5 liters per hectare) and 24-epibrassinolide at three levels (0, 0.01 and 0.1 μmol) were as secondary factors. According to the results of the present study, drought stress had a decisive role in reducing the properties of Sarhargol medicinal plant, as well as the main effects of brassinolide, surfactant solution and drought stress according to the content of soluble sugars, proline, glycine betaine, amino acids, lysine and methionine. They had Due to the limitation of water resources, irrigation after 120 mm, use of brassinolide and surfactant can have a positive role in removing the damages of drought stress. In addition, brassinolide and surfactant led to increased tolerance to drought stress in Sarhargol medicinal plant, which led to relative resistance to drought and stability of the yield of dry matter of the plant and its essential oil.

Increasing concerns about the phenomenon of global warming caused by greenhouse gases have led to increased attention to the sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. However, in the desert areas, stresses, especially dust stress, have made biological restoration operations difficult. In this research, the effect of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria on the vegetative and physiological characteristics of Haloxylon aphyllm under the influence of dust (control and 1.5 g/m2/month) was investigated. In the conditions of dust application, the Zhihengliuela halotolerans strain compared to Bacillus pumilus increased total chlorophyll (236%) and decreased ascorbic acid (75%), soluble sugar (53%), and catalase enzyme activity (65%), respectively. Under dust conditions, the B. pumilus strain performed better in terms of total phenol (52%), proline (66%), peroxidase enzyme activity (79%), and total dry biomass (108%) than the Z. halotolerans strain. The results also showed that both bacteria were able to reduce ascorbic acid, total phenol content, proline, soluble sugar, catalase and peroxidase in Haloxylon aphyllum, which showed that the use of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria can reduce free radicals and thereby prevent damage to the plant. The results of this research showed that plant growth promoting bacteria isolated from saline pasture plants can increase the seedling quality index under dust stress conditions and can help in the afforestation of Haloxylon aphyllum and the promotion of carbon dioxide sequestration in climate change conditions in arid and semi-arid ecosystems.

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is susceptible to phosphorus (P) deficiency and because of coarse root system with low branching rate, this species is highly dependent on mycorrhizal symbiosis. As a beneficial element for higher plants, selenium (Se) improves nutritional and pharmaceutical quality of this species. In this research, the effect of Se (at 0, 20 and 80 µg L–1 of substrate as Na2SeO4) was investigated in garlic plants grown under adequate (2 mM) and low P (without P supply for six weeks) in the absence or presence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF), Diversispora versiformis in perlite as substrate and irrigated with Hoagland nutrient solution for six weeks. Results showed that, P deficiency caused reduction of shoot growth and leaf photosynthesis while AMF inoculation results in the improvement of growth, photosynthesis and sugars content. Selenium augmented the effect of AMF inoculation leading to the highest dry biomass, photosynthesis and sugars content under the combination of both treatments irrespective the P supply level. The root activity of acid phosphatase (APase) was not affected by low P or +AMF as single treatments, while Se alone or in combination with low P and +AMF significantly increased the APase activity. The optimum Se concentration on the biomass, root colonization rate, photosynthesis and APase activity was 80 µg L–1. This is the first report on the synergistic effect of Se on AMF symbiosis on the adaptive response of plants to P deficiency.

In order to study the effect of cold stress on some physiological characteristics of nine ecotypes of grass pea, a factorial split plot experiment based on completely randomized design with two factors and four replications was carried out in growth chamber. The first factor was cold treatment at two levels (25 and -3˚C) and the second factor was ecotype at nine levels collected from local areas named Bam, Sirjan, Torbat Heydariyeh, Baft 1 (Kiskan area), Baft 2 (Bidgerdoyeh area), Shiraz, Kuhbanan, Rabar and Bardsir. Traits measured in this experiment included content of soluble sugars, proline, starch, chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll, as well as the activity of antioxidant enzymes. The results showed that in all ecotypes with decreasing temperature from 25 to -3 degrees the content of soluble sugars, proline, ion leakage and the activity of catalase and peroxidase enzymes increased whereas the content of starch and chlorophyll a, b and total decreased. Significant variation was observed between ecotypes in terms of cold stress tolerance. In Baft 2 and Bardsir ecotypes, proline content was higher than other ecotypes. Also, the highest soluble sugar content was related to Baft 2 ecotype and the highest catalase activity was related to Bardsir ecotype. In addition, these ecotypes had higher survival score. Based on the results of survival score, Baft2 and Bardsir ecotypes showed the highest resistance to cold stress and Bam, Shiraz and Sirjan ecotypes showed the lowest resistance.

In order to investigate the effects of kaolin foliar application on growth, physiological and biochemical characteristics of some olive cultivars in Dalahu Olive Research Station in Sarpolzahab city, a factorial experiment in a randomized complete block design with three replications and two factors (cultivars) Olive and kaolin concentrations) was done in year 2020. The planting distance was 6.6 m. Experimental materials of this study were 15-year-old trees of six olive cultivars including Amphisis, Seville, Roughani, Manzanillo, Konservolia and Zard. Two stages of complete foliar application of olive trees with kaolin at zero concentrations as control (foliar application with water) and 2 and 4%, in mid-July and August (due to warm and dry weather during this period), And its effects on growth, physiological and biochemical characteristics of olive cultivars were evaluated. Tree care and maintenance operations were applied equally in all treatments. vegetative traits such as growth and diameter of the current-season shoot growth and current-season shoot diameter as well as relative leaf water content, ion leakage, leaf proline content, total soluble sugars and chlorophyll content  and catalase and peroxidase activity were recorded in different treatments and different cultivars.The results showed that the response of olive cultivars to foliar application of different levels of kaolin was different. Foliar application of kaolin improved growth traits, relative leaf water and chlorophyll content of olive cultivars under warm conditions. Also, kaolin used in olive cultivars reduced the accumulation of malondialdehyde, which was associated with increased activity of antioxidant enzymes. In general, the results of this study showed that kaolin spraying can be used to protect olive tree in warm regions.

Salicylic acid (SA) is known as an influential signal molecule in plant responses to environmental stresses. In this study, the effects of SA as a pre-treatment of psyllium (Plantago ovata) seeds on seedling growth, photosynthetic pigments, proteins and amino acids, and accumulation of soluble sugars and starch in response to salinity stress were investigated. Psyllium seeds were soaked with 0 and 500 μM SA for 24 h and sown in the research greenhouse of Iranshahr University in 2019, and the seedlings were exposed as a factorial design to 0, 25, 50, 100, 150 and 300 mM NaCl at 3-day intervals for 20 days. The results showed the seedling growth rate, photosynthetic pigments including chlorophylls and carotenoids, protein concentration as well as accumulation of soluble sugars and starch were severely reduced due to salinity stress. However, the accumulation of free amino acids and proline increased in response to salt stress. SA treatment improved the length of the shoot, increased the amount of pigments, decreased the amount of amino acids, and caused the accumulation of proteins and proline. In addition, an increase in the amount of non-reducing sugars and starch, which was associated with no change or decrease in the concentration of reducing sugars at high salinity levels, occurred in response to SA. These results show that priming the seeds with SA before sowing can increase the plant tolerance to salinity stress through the accumulation of non-reducing sugars and proline and thus maintain the turgor pressure of cells.

One of the major abiotic stresses that negatively affects plants is the presence of heavy metals. Soil pollution with heavy metals, resulting from the industrial development and use of fertilizers containing heavy metals, has become a major environmental concern in human societies. Mercury is a toxic heavy metal that causes pollution in agricultural lands. Accumulation of Hg by plants may disrupt many cellular functions and block growth and development. Under such conditions, the enzymatic and non-enzymatic defense systems of plants are activated. Several defense systems are cooperating together in plants to cope with stressful situations. In this study, the effect of different concentrations of mercury on the photosynthetic pigments content and non-enzymatic defence systems in Nicotiana tabacum was studied. After planting the plants under the same conditions in the hydroponic medium and feeding the plants with Hoagland solution, treatments with different concentrations of mercury nitrate (0.5, 1 and 3 mM and a control group) were applied to the seedlings in three replications. Ten days after the application of the treatments, the plants were harvested and examined. The results showed that tobacco plants which had been exposed to heavy metal used the accumulation of osmolytes such as proline and soluble sugars in order to balance their osmotic pressure. The decrease in the amounts of photosynthetic pigments and increase in the levels of malondialdehyde in the leaves indicated the elevation of oxidative damage. Increased activity of non-enzymatic antioxidants in tobacco leaves, including anthocyanins, phenol, flavonols and flavonoids, can be interpreted as the mechanisms of resistance to heavy metal stress induced by mercury.

In order to study the effect of uniconazole and bio fertilizers on activity of some antioxidant enzymes and compatible osmolites of wheat (Triticum aestivum L var Zagros.) in soil salinity conditions, a factorial experiment was conducted based on randomized complete block design with three replications in a research greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources of Mohaghegh Ardebili University in 2018. Treatments were included soil salinity in four levels (no application of salinity as control and application of 40, 80 and 120 mM soil salinity), by NaCl and application of uniconazole, mycorrhiza fungi (Glomus intraradicese) and pseudomonas putida strain 186 in seven levels. Means comparision showed that both application of mycorrhiza with uniconazole and pseudomonas under 120 mM salinity increased soluble sugars and proline contents, antioxidant enzymes activity such as catalase, peroxidase polyphenol oxidase (93.98, 47.33, 63.88, 75.67, 69.35% respectively) in comparison with no application of bio fertilizers under without salinity. Also, both application of mycorrhiza with uniconazole and pseudomonas under without salinity increased leaf proteine, plant height and grain yield (72.36, 41.85 and 108.84% respectively) and decreased electrolyte leakage (39.02%) in comparison with application of bio fertilizers under at the highest soil salinity level. It seems that the mentioned bio-fertilizers and uniconazole application can increase grain yield of wheat due to improve biochemical and physiological traits of wheat under soil salinity condition.

In order to investigate the response of 15 maize S6 lines to drought stress, a split plot design based on randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted in 2015 year at the research field of Graduate University of Advanced Technology, Kerman, Iran. In this study, the main factor was stress at two levels (normal with five days irrigation and low irrigation with ten days irrigation) and the sub-factor was maize line at 15 levels. The results showed that there were significant differences between stress levels and lines for all studied traits (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, carotenoids, soluble sugars, protein and proline content). Mean comparison of lines showed that lines 9, 3 and 5 had the highest proline content under drought stress conditions. The lowest phenotypic coefficient of variation was for total protein (2.59) and the highest for proline (74.17). Cluster analysis divided the studied lines into four, five and six groups in normal, drought and mean conditions, respectively, and the similarity of their grouping was high. Based on the results of cluster analysis and mean comparisons, lines with high genetic distance were grouped together. Thus, three groups, each with five lines, were found to be used in the planning of breeding projects and cross-breeding programs. Line 9 also showed a high mean for most of the studied traits in both conditions and it can be considered as a promising line in future experiments.

Fig fruit (Ficus carica L.) contains large amounts of phenolic-compounds, flavonoids and anthocyanins, which are the most important natural antioxidants. In this study, the fruit of three fig genotypes from three villages of Qerkh-Yashar, Badal-Abad and Pirmousi located in Khoy city, West-Azarbaijan province was harvested in September of 2019 and their biochemical characteristics were investigated. Some important chemical properties of the fruit were measured, such as antioxidant capacity with DPPH method, total phenol-content, total anthocyanin with Spectrophotometer, soluble sugars and polyphenols with HPLC. The measured antioxidant capacity by DPPH method in fruits varied from 36.93 to 45.67%. The highest total phenol was 418.59 mg in 100g of fresh gallic-acid, which was observed in the second genotype. The highest anthocyanin was 1.219 mg in 100g of fresh weight, which was observed in the first genotype. According to the results of the analysis of soluble sugars in all three sugars: fructose, sucrose and glucose were observed in all three genotypes. in this study, 9 types of polyphenolic-compounds were extracted from fig fruit, which included: caffeic-acid, gallic-acid, chlorogenic-acid, rutin, coumaric, rosemary-acid, quercetin, cinnamic-acid, apagenine, and the combination of chlorogenic-acid with an average of 30.88 micrograms-pergram was identified as the dominant polyphenol. According to the results of this study, different fig genotypes contain antioxidants and natural polyphenols, among which the first genotype, which belongs to the village of Qerkh-Yashar, contains higher levels of antioxidants and Polyphenols can be suggested for future correctional programs, but can also be used in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Considering the high water requirement of grass during growth stages and the limitation of irrigation sources, it is important to find a suitable way to reduce the water requirement of the lawns as cover plants used in the Landscape. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of 2,4,5-T on the induction of callus from the hypocotyl explant in Kentucky bluegrass, induce in vitro drought stress using polyethylene glycol and evaluate the tolerance to stress using folic acid in in vitro conditions in Kentucky bluegrass. In the first experiment, the effect of 2,4,5-T in concentrations of 0.5, 1 and 2 mg / L in combination with two concentrations of 0 and 0.1 mg/l BA was investigated and  highest percentage of callus induction at a concentration of 0.5 mg/ of 2,4,5-T alone was observed.  In the second experiment, different concentrations of PEG were used for induction of drought stress in calli. Results showed that increasing the concentration of PEG decreased the growth indices in callus, so that in the concentration of 3 and 4 percent PEG, the least amount of measured traits of callus was observed.  In the third and fourth experiments, folic acid was used to suppress drought stress induced by PEG in two stages of callus and regeneratin plants. The results of the third experiment showed that the use of folic acid in MS medium at 0.5 and 1 mg /l concentration reduced callus growth traits and increased soluble sugar content. In the fourth experiment, the results showed a decrease in the measured traits of regenerated plants in 4% PEG. The highest amount of soluble sugars in regenerated plants was observed in treatment 1 mg / l folic acid in combination with 0 % PEG.

In order to study the effects of cold stress on some physiological characteristics of three pre-selected of linseed, a factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with two factors and three replicates was carried out in growth chamber of Faculty of Agriculture, Vali-e-Asr University of Rafsanjan, IRAN. The First factor was cold treatment at three levels (25, 0 and -2.5 ℃) and the second factor was genotype including three accessions named MAR778b, CYP706 and IND1257 selected based on preliminary test as tolerant, semi tolerant and sensitive to cold, respectively. The results showed that temperature decrease from 25 to 0OC did not induce any significant change in any trait. On the contrary, -2.5 ℃ treatment significantly increased content of total soluble sugars, proline and malondialdehyde IND1257 (susceptible) much more, and chlorophyll content, much less than two other genotypes. Also, total leaf carotenoids content of tolerant genotype (MAR778b) at -2.5 OC was significantly lower than control (25 OC), though those of two other genotypes were not different. Finally, poly phenol oxidase activity decreased by 0 and -2.5 OC in all three genotypes but phenyl alanine amonialyase increased at -2.5 OC compared to 0 and 25 OC only in tolerant cultivar (MAR778b). Correlation analysis revealed a significant association of PAL activity with stress susceptibility index

Zinc and copper are essential elements for plant growth and development. Basil (Ocimum basilicum) is an important herb of medicine and nutrition. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of these elements on Basil. In this study, seeds were planted in pots containing cocopeat and perlite and the four-leaf seedlings were treated with zinc sulfate at of 0, 350 and 550 micro-molar concentrations and 0, 20 and 40 micro-molar copper sulfate in three replications. After a month, accumulation of these elements, proline, soluble sugars, total proteins, photosynthetic pigment and malon dialdehyde contents, leaf area, number of leaves were investigated. The results showed that different concentrations of copper and zinc effects were not significant on germination percentage, number of leaves and stem length. However increased zinc and copper were significantly increased fresh and dry weight of root and shoot. Copper and zinc treatment had no significant effects on peroxidase and catalase enzyme activities while malondialdehyde, proline, soluble sugars, total proteins contents increased. In this study, with increased concentrations of copper and zinc in the medium, copper and zinc accumulation increased in the root. The root accumulates more ions than the shoot. The accumulation of copper (shoot and roots) and zinc (shoot) decrease with increasing concentrations of copper and zinc in the medium which shows the interaction between the two elements. No significant decrease in chlorophyll content indicates that basil is resistant to copper and zinc metals in these concentrations. Antioxidant enzymes do not activate in these concentrations

Plants need suitable amounts of micronutrients for optimal growth under stress conditions and this increases plant resistance to stress conditions such as salinity. In order to investigate the reaction of flax to iron application under salt stress conditions, a pot experiment was conducted as a factorial based on a completely randomized design with three replications. Salinity was determined by sodium chloride at five levels (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mM) and iron with 3 levels (25, 50 and 75 μM). With increased salinity, the amount of root and shoot sodium increased whereas the amount of potassium in the root and shoot decreased. The root iron concentration increased with increasing salinity up to 100 mM, and then decreased. The shoot iron concentration increased with increasing salinity up to 50 mM and followed by a decreasing trend. With increasing salinity, the amount of proline and leaf soluble sugar increased. At all salinity levels, iron had a significant effect on the amount of proline and soluble sugar. With increasing salinity up to 50 mM, the leaf soluble protein, antioxidant enzymes (peroxidase and superoxide dismutase) increased and then decreased. With increasing salinity, root and shoot dry weight decrease. To reduce the effect of salinity, the use of 50 and 75 μM iron in nutrient solutions is recommended.

To study the effects of drought stress and Abscisic Acid (ABA) on morpho-physiological and biochemical traits of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), an experiment was conducted in a factorial based on a completely randomized design at Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources in 2017. The treatments included four levels of drought stress (55, 70, 85, and 100 F.C) and the foliar application of abscisic acid (0, 10, 20 and 30 ppm). At flowering stage, growth characteristics and morphology including stem diameter, fresh, and dry weight of shoot, fresh and dry weight of root, stem height, root length, leaf area, leaf number, seed number, flower number, total weight of seeds, number sub branch, sub-branch diameter, total phenolic content, total flavonoid content of root, antioxidant activity, amounts of proline, soluble sugars of root and abscisic acid of leaf were evaluated. ing the amount of leaf abscisic acid, number of branches and total sugars. Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that water stress has negative effects on plant growth and spraying of the abscisic acid improves some traits in drought stress.

Salinity is one of the major challenges to increasing crop productivity. Besides these, in order to investigate of  proline and salicylic acid in the modulation of salt stress on soybean (Glycine max L.) , an experiment was conducted as split plot arrangement in a randomized completely design with four replication in 2016 in College of Agriculture, Shahrekord University. Main plot included three level irrigation by saline water with electrical conductivity 2 (control), 5 and 10 dS m-1 NaCl) and sub plot in four level of foliar applied (10 mM proline, in combination with 10 mM proline + 3 mM salicylic acid, 3 mM salicylic acid and sprayed with water (control)). The results showed that the 5 and 10 dS m-1 NaCl lead to increased and decreased of photosynthetic pigments compared with the control, respective. Proline and soluble sugars were increased under salt stress, while membrane stability index and relative water content decreased. Interaction between salt stress and foliar treatments showed that the highest increase in chl. b, carotenoid and proline were recorded in 5 dS m-1 NaCl and proline plus salicylic acid with increase of 93, 53 and 143% as compared to the control, respectively. Membrane stability index and relative water content were decreased 63 and 38% as compared to the control, respectively. So, foliar application of 10 mM proline with 3 mM salicylic acid on physiological parameters of soybean was the best treatment to mitigate the detrimental effects of salt stress. So, proline function as compatible solute in osmotic adjustment and salicylic acid with the protective role through physiological reactions under salt stress.

In this study we have demonstrated the variations of carbohydrates and phenolic compounds present in the leaves and stems of ‘Kinnow’ mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) trees in alternate bearing cycle and the possible involvement of these compounds to flower bud formation process. The amounts of these compounds were determined in the leaves and stems of “on” and “off” trees monthly from Nov. 2010 until Mar. 2011 coinciding with citrus trees floral bud induction and differentiation in northern hemisphere. The experiments were designed as a randomized complete block with three replications and two trees per each replication. Results showed that the presence of fruits on “on” trees inhibited flower bud formation, decreased total sprouted buds and resulted in the reduction of vegetative growth of these trees. The endogenous levels of soluble sugars and total non-structural carbohydrates in leaves and the starch contents of stems were affected by fruiting state of trees. Variations of total phenol contents in the leaves and stems related to presence or absence of fruits on trees. The phenolic contents of the stems were significantly lower in non-bearing trees than in fruit-bearing ones. Among the five phenolic compounds analyzed, the pattern of changes in the contents of chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid and naringin were different in two types of trees. Similar trend was observed for the amounts of all phenolic compounds in the stems of bearing and non-bearing tress.