زیتون

Low fruit and oil yield are the most important challenges of olive production in the southern and western regions of Iran. For identifying and selecting high-yielding olive cultivars adapted to the environmental conditions of these regions, this research was carried-out in Fars (Kazeroun), Khuzestan (Baghmalek), and Kermanshah (Reejab) provinces. For this purpose, in each province in 2013, an orchard was established with 10 olive cultivars, four trees of each cultivar, using randomized complete block design with three replications. The vegetative and reproductive traits were measured and estimated in 2022 and 2023. The 10 olive cultivars included: Mavi, Keup, Avan, Tokhm Kabki, Dosty, Shiraz, Dehghan, Dakal, Amygdalolia and Konservolia. The results showed that in Kazeroun cv. Keup had the highest fruit yield (22 kg tree-1) and oil yield (3 kg tree-1). In Baghmelek cv. Keup and cv. Konservolia had the highest fruit yield (30 and 25 kg tree-1, respectively), and oil yield (2.9 kg tree-1). In Reejab, cv. Shiraz, cv. Dakal, cv. Tokhm Kabki, cv. Keup and cv. Konservolia had the highest fruit yield, respectively. Also, oil content in fresh matter of the olive cultivars in Reejab was 1.5 to 2.2 percent higher than in Kazeroun and Baghmalek.

The amount of leaf nutrients is directly related to the growth of fruit trees and is known as an effective indicator in diagnosing the nutritional status of trees. Investigating the dynamics of nutrient elements is necessary to provide an effective program for fertilization of orchards and improving the efficiency of fertilizer application. The olive tree is economically very important due to its adaptability to different climates and the production of fruit and oil. Understanding the physiological aspects of olive tree nutrition requires sufficient knowledge in relation to the seasonal change of leaf nutrient content, while very few studies have investigated the seasonal variation of nutrients in olive cultivars. Based on this, in the current research, the seasonal dynamics of macronutrient and micronutrient concentration in the leaves of four olive cultivars were investigated during four seasons in Ahvaz weather conditions.

This research was conducted in the olive research orchard in Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, in a randomized complete block (RCB) design (repeated measures) with four replications. Leaf sampling was done during 2022, from one year old shoots on 20-year-old mature olive trees of Dezful, Koroneiki, Manzanilla and Kavi. In this study, the concentration of macronutrients (N, P and K) and micronutrients (Fe, Cu, B, Zn and Mn) were measured in olive leaves.

The interaction of season and cultivar had a significant effect on the concentration of all macronutrients and the Mn. The nutritional status of the studied cultivars was optimal in terms of all elements except N.The difference in the seasonal dynamics pattern of N was evident for olive cultivars. The highest and lowest N concentration were recorded in the spring for Kavi and Manzanilla respectively.Olive cultivars showed the same and sinusoidal pattern in the change of P content during the seasons. The seasonal dynamics of K concentration, like P, had a similar pattern among cultivars, with the highest K concentration was recorded in spring and summer and the lowest in winter and autumn.The highest amount of Fe was recorded in spring (162.28 mg kg-1), but compared to the amount of Fe in leaves in winter (143.06 mg kg-1), there was a significant increase. The seasonal dynamics of Fe showed a sinusoidal pattern, so that the lowest Fe concentration recorded in winter and the highest in spring and autumn. Cu concentration significantly decreased from winter to spring and summer, and the highest concentration of Cu was recorded in winter (68.06 mg kg-1). The seasonal pattern of Cu concentration showed that it was the lowest in spring and the highest in winter and autumn. The highest B concentration was in autumn (77.36 mg kg-1). The seasonal pattern of B concentration showed an increasing trend over time. The amount of Zn decreased significantly from winter to spring and summer, and reached its highest concentration in the autumn, so that it increased by 33.80% compared to the summer. The seasonal pattern of Zn showed a decrease and then an increase during the year from winter to autumn. T. The highest and lowest concentrations of Mn was recorded in spring for Koroneiki and Kavi (72.68 and 38.10 mg kg-1) respectively.

The results of this research showed that the effects of season was more important than other effects; Because the concentration changes of all elements were affected by the season. According to the results, the concentration of P, K and micronutrients was optimal, but the amount of N, especially in the growing seasons (spring and summer), was evaluated as less than optimal level, so the application of N-containing fertilizers is suggested before the beginning of the growing season.

Due to the role of optimal nutrition and fertilizer types applied on olive fatty acids, in this study the effect of foliar application of nano-potassium (K) and nano-silicon (Si) fertilizers on the fatty acid composition of olive fruit cv. Zard were investigated in spring and summer of 2021 in Darreh Shahr, Ilam province, Iran. The K nanoparticles at three levels; 0, 400, and 800 mg l-1 and Si nanoparticles at three levels; 0, 30, and 60 mg l-l nanoparticles were foliar applied on olive tree canopies using factorial arrangements in complete randomized block design with three replications. The results showed that the content of majority of fatty acids in the oil olive fruit were affected by treatments and the content of both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids were increased in fruits of treated plants. The highest saturated fatty acids content (19.24%) and palmitic acid (15.47%) was recorded in 800 mg 1-1 potassium and 60 mg l-1 silicon, respectively, while arachidic acid was highest (0.94%) in 400 mg l-1 potassium and 30 mg l-1 silicon. The maximum stearic acid (3.37%) was attained in 400 mg l-1 potassium. The highest level of linolenic acid (1.24%) and linoleic acid (12.12%) was recorded in the simultaneous application of 800 mg l-1 potassium and 30 mg l-1 silicon, while application of 800 mg l-1 potassium and or 60 mg l-1 silicon led to the highest content of oleic, palmitoleic, unsaturated and mono unsaturated fatty acids. It is concluded that intermediate levels of potassium is more efficient for enhancement of saturated fatty acid while unsaturated fatty acids were highest in 800 mg l-1. Moreover, application of each fertilizer at high concentrations led to the highest monounsaturated fatty acids content, while a combination of lower levels of potassium and silicon was more efficient for increasing the content of saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. 

High temperature has negative effects on olive physiology, especially flowering, fruit growth and oil production. To identify olive cultivars/genotypes tolerant to heat stress, 12 olive cultivars and genotypes with four temperature treatments T1: (34 ± 1.5 ˚C), T2: (37 ± 1.5 ˚C), T3: (40 ± 1.5˚C) and T4: (43 ± 1.5 ˚C) were evaluated at Tarom olive research station, Iran, in 2016. The experiment was conducted as factorial arrangement in randomized complete block design with three replications. The results showed that the photosynthesis rate and water use efficiency decreased with increasing temperature. The results showed that the highest photosynthesis rate was obtained in T1 with 11.84 μmol m-2 s-1 and the lowest in T4 with 4.87 μmol m-2 s-1. In T4 temperature treatment, cv. Manzanilla maintained more than 50% and cv. Amin 44% of their photosynthesis efficiency compared to T1 temperature treatment. The of cultivar temperature × treatment interaction effect showed that the highest photosynthesis rate in T1 was 17.42 and 17.25 μmol.m-2s-1 in cv. Amin and cv. Deira, respectively. At temperatures > 40° C, there was a sharp decrease in the stomatal conductance of the leaves. Cv. Arbequina and Ozine genotype had the highest and lowest water use efficiency with 2.63 and 1.84 mmolCO2 molH2O-1, respectively. Also, the highest water use efficiency was obtained in KH15 genotype and cv. Deira in T1 temperature treatment. Due to the considerable decrease in photosynthesis rate at temperatures above > 40 °C, olive cultivation in areas with hot summers will cause significant reduction in fruit yield and in fruit oil content. 

Introducing olive cultivars with high oil quality is one of the objectives of olive breeding programs. Simultaneously, with the introduction of new olive cultivars from Mediterranean countries, the identification, collection, and evaluation of local genotypes was also implemented in the Zanjan Agriculture and Natural Resources Research Center. In 1997, cuttings of 25 T-olive genotypes were prepared from the Hashem Abad olive orchard of Golestan province. In 1998, the propagated plants were planted at the collection of Tarom Olive Research Station. Since 2006, with the implementation of five research projects for 15 years, the “Gilvaneh” cultivar was released by the selection method of genotypes. The “Gilvaneh” cultivar has oval leaves, the average number of flowers in an inflorescence is (22.9), the average length of the inflorescence is (27.5 mm), and the date of opening of the flowers and formation of the fruit of this cultivar occurs in the first half of May. “Gilvaneh” cultivar has medium fruit weight (2.8-3.2 gr), and the most important characteristic of this cultivar is having 70.3% oil in the dry matter of the fruit, high oleic acid (80.1%) and low palmitic acid (9.9%); Therefore, this cultivar has high oil quality among different olive cultivars and is suitable for cultivation in Tarom region.

This research was conducted for evaluating the tend of dry matter and oil accumulation in fruits of seven olive promising genotypes under climatic conditions of Dallaho olive research station in Sarpol-e Zahab, in Kermanshah province, Iran, in 2018 and 2019 growing seasons. Ten years old trees of seven olive promising genotypes; D1, Dd1, Gw, Ps1, Bn3, Bn6 and Ds3 were planted using randomized complete block design with 3 replications. The results showed that oil accumulation in olive genotype commenced from July and reached to maximal content in November. The oil accumulation was continuous in fruits and gradually increased in all of genotypes. D1 and Bn3 promising genotypes had the highest oil content in dry matter, and the maximum dry matter was observed in Gw and Dd1. The results of this research revealed that olive promising genotypes had different responses in warm climatic conditions, and oil accumulation was influenced by temperature.

Olive tree (Olea europaea L.) is an evergreen and native plant to the Mediterranean regions. The appropriate area for olive cultivation for oil production has moderate winters and long and dry summers. In high temperatures and intensive radiation, olive trees indicate 80% reduction in leaves photosynthesis (Bongi and Long, 1987). In high temperature and water shortage, fruit and oil quality in olive trees decrease (Saadato et al., 2013). The precursor of oil biosynthesis in olive fruits is carbohydrate (Conde et al., 2008). The semi-arid and arid weather during fruit growth and oil accumulation necessitate the selection of tolerant olive cultivars. The dry matter and oil accumulation strongly depend upon climatic condition and olive cultivars, therefore the choice of the most promising tolerant cultivars that perform successful, under stressful conditions, is inevitable to achieve the high quality olive fruit and oil. 

This study was carried out in Dallaho olive research station (34º 30′ 34′′ N, 45º 51′ 53′′ E, and 580m above sea level) in Sarpolezahab in Kermanshah province in Iran in 2018 and 2019 growing seasons. Ten years old tress of seven olive promising cultivars (D1, Dd1, Gw, Ps1, Bn3, Bn6 and Ds3 were evaluated using randomized complete block design with three replications. In two consecutive years, 2018 and 2019, fruit harvesting was carried out in two weeks intervals from July to November. Dry matter was measured following by Anonymous (1997) and oil content was determined following Dag et al. (2011). Combined analysis of variance was performed using SAS software. Duncan’s Multiple Range Test was employed for mean comparison. Figures were depicted using Excel software. 

The highest oil contente in dry matter belonged to D1 and Bn3 promising genotypes. The highest dry matter was observed in Gw and Dd1 promising genotypes. As harvest date delayed, oil content in dry matter increased, and in September until final harvest in November, the highest oil content in dry and fresh matters was obtained. The oil content is sensitive to temperature variation and by increasing temperature from 16 ºC to 32 ºC, oil content decreased (Borges et al., 2017).The reduction of pomological traits in olive in high temperature conditions is due to enhancement of respiration, oxidative disturbance and reduction of photosynthesis efficiency (Neves et al., 2019). Different olive promising genotypes due to expression of heat shock proteins had different levels of tolerance against high temperature (Nissim et al., 2020). During this research, the mean maximum and minimum temperatures were more than 40 ℃ and 30 ℃ in June, July and August, and the high temperature was accompanied by reduction in relative humidity. The results indicated that maximum and minimum temperatures had negative effects on oil content of some olive promising genotypes.

In some olive trees despite suitable vegetative growth and reproductive to maturity stage, fruits do not set and development do not occur, due mainly to lack of the adaptability. This research was conducted to determine the optimal time for topworking in olive trees using scions from two common cultivars in each of the six provinces including Fars, Khuzestan, Kermanshah, Lorestan, Ilam and Qazvin in Iran during 2021-2022. Results showed that optimal time for topworking in olive trees in Khuzestan was in the mid-October with cv. Conservolia scion, in Ilam in the second half of October with cv. Conservolia and cv. Diereh scions, in Lorestan in the first half of October with cv. Amygdalia scion, in Fars in the first half of October with cv. Consevolia scion, in Kermanshah in September with cv. Conservolia scion, in Qazvin on May 20th with cv. Conservolia scion.

In some olive trees despite suitable vegetative growth and reaching to maturity stage, fruits does not set and development do not occur, due mainly to lack of the adaptability (Hartman et al., 2017). Topworking has been practiced, for long-time, in some fruit trees such as pecan (Yates and Sparks, 1992) and walnut (Rezaee and Vahdati, 2008). Sometime in a region, a fruit tree variety is planted without assessment of its adaptability and quality properties. Therefore, its performance is not satisfactory and economically profitable. Therefore, changing the variety is necessary. In such a case, topworking-using scions from adapted and high yielding with desirable fruit and oil quality is a strategy to save farmer’s investments. It has been demonstrated that topworking in different olive varieties resulted in better vegetative growth and fruit yield. However, it differed with rootstock variety (Lion et al., 2020). In recent decades olive orchards in Khuzestan and Fras provinces in Iran has been established using olive varieties that are not well adapted and produce low yield with low quality (Ajamgard and Zeinanloo, 2013; Taslimpour, et al., 2016). To change the variety of olive orchard, olive producers should bear high costs. Therefore, topworking can help to graft scions from adapted high yield varieties on the rootstock of existing orchards. The main objective of this research was to determine the optimal time for topworking in olive trees in different regions of Iran, and to recommend the optimal time and suitable scion cultivars for each region. 

The experiments were carried out, during 2021 and 2022, as split-plot arrangements in completely randomized design with three replications. Grafting dates at five levels from Auguest 29th to November 28th (in Qazvin from May) were assigned to main plots, and olive cultivar at two levels (cv. Conservolia was common + one adapted cultivar in each location) were randomized in sub-plots. The grafting success rate and the scion growth were evaluated and recorded. Analysis of variance for data was performed using SAS 9.4 software. Duncan’s Multiple Range Test was employed for means comparsion at the 5% and 1% probability levels. 

The results showed that in Khuzestan province the mid-October was the optimal date for topworking of olive trees. Also cv. Conservolia’s scions had significantly (P ≤ 0.01) greater growth than cv. Avan scions. In Ilam province, the results showed that the maximum grafting success rate achieved in the second half of October with cv. Conservolia nd cv. Diereh scions. In Lorestan province, the grafting success rate, using scions of cv. Conservolia and cv. Amygdalolia were 88% and 80%, respectively, in the first half of October. In Fars province, the success of topworking in the first half of October was 80%, while the vegetative growth of cv. Conservolia’s scion was greater than cv. Amygdalolia. In Kermanshah province, the results showed that the grafting success rate of olive trees was significantly (P≤ 0.05) higher in September with cv. Consevolia scion. In Qazvin province, the results showed that the optimal date for topworking of olive trees was May 20th with grafting success rate of 75% and 94% for cv. Conservolia and cv. Zard, respectively. Hussain et al. (2021) reported that topworking in olive trees in Pakistan was more successful in June-July. Yates and Sparks (1992) and Rezaee and Vahdati (2008) also reported that topworking improved yield and quality of pecan and walnut, respectively.The highlight of the results of this research was determination of optimal time (optimal window) and suitable cultivars (scions) for topworking in olive trees in the six target regions in Iran. 

Study of adaptability and performance are important steps in the introduction of new olive cultivars for target regions. In this research, pomological characteristics, fruit and oil yield of 55 foreign and native olive cultivars were evaluated at Tarom olive research station from 2015 to 2017. The results showed that the effect of year, cultivar and their interaction effect on fruit yield were significant (P≤ 0.01). Cv. Toffahi with an average fruit weight of 11.36 grams had the largest fruit followed by cv. Jlot, cv. Chalkidiki and cv. Voliotiki with average fruit weight of more than 10 grams. Cv. Jlot had the highest fruit flesh (93%) and cv. Khodeiri had the highest (69.53%) dry matter oil content. Cv. Chalkidiki, cv. Nebali, cv. Arbequina, cv. Agromanaki, cv. Megaron, cv. Koroneiki with 66.28-55.67 percent dry matter oil content were among the cultivars with high oil content. The highest fruit yield per tree (80.16 kg tree-1) obtained from cv. Caridolia. Cv. Abusatl, cv. Moussaabi, cv. Arbequina, cv. Koroneiki, cv. Caridolia and cv. Conservolia were also high yielding with high yield stability cultivars, respectively. The highest oil yield belonged to cv. Caridolia, cv. Koroneiki and cv. Conservolia with 2974, 3412 and 2782 kg ha-1, respectively. Cv. Picual, cv. Chalkidiki and cv. Abusatl also produced more than two tons of oil per hectare.

Severe cold is one of the most important limiting factors for olive production. This research aimed to evaluating and selecting cold-tolerant olive cultivars. Therfore, six olive cultivars including; Grossane, Abusatl, Koroneiki, Chavar, Siab and Kolafaraj were evaluated under five cold treatments (Control, -9°C, -11°C, -13°C and -15°C). Electrolyte leakage, leaf thickness and relative water, nitrogen, calcium, potassium, total carbohydrate, oleic and linoleic acids contents of the leaves of olive cultivars were measured. The results indicated that the lowest leaf thickness related to cv. Koroneiki with average of 0.42 mm. The highest total carbohydrate was in the leaves of Grossane (4.83%) and the lowest in Koroneiki (2.20%). The cultivar × cold treatment interaction effect showed that in the -9°C, the highest changes in electrolyte leakage, as compared to the control temperature, was in cv. Siab (53.26%) and Koroneiki (48.59%). At the -11°C, the highest electrolyte leakage related to Kolafaraj (73.39%). There was significant difference between cold treatments for electrolyte leakage. As the temperature decreased to -15°C, electrolyte leakage increased. Mean comparison showed that cv. Abusatl (60.0%) and Grossane (60.86%) had the lowest electrolyte leakage. Correlation coefficient between oleic acid and linoleic acid contents was negative and significant (r = -0.490*). Relative water content had positive and significant correlation coffeieceint (r = 0.533*) with leaf potassium content. Leaf thickness had positive and highly significant correlation with oleic acid (r = 0.878**), and significan with linoleic acid (r = 0.545*). Correlation coefficient between total carbohydrate and linoleic acid was positive and significant (r = 0.804**). Based on the results of this research cv. Abusatl and Grossane were cold tolerant, and cv. Koroneiki, cv. Siab and cv. Kolafaraj were cold sensitive.

In this study, morpho-physiological characteristics and oil quality properties of some olive cultivars and genotypes were evaluated in private olive orchards in Murmouri and Darehshar counties in Ilam province, Iran, in 2019 and 2020. Olive cultivars and genotypes included cv. Zard, cv. Shiraz, cv. Shengeh, cv. Koroneiki, cv. Golole, cv. Manzanilla, genotypes 4 and 7 were collected from Murmouri, and genotypes 9, 10 and 11 from Darehshahr. There were significant differences between cultivars/genotypes for morpho-physiological characteristics of leaf and fruit. The highest fruit weight (4.24 g) belonged to cv. Zard and cv. Golole, and the highest fruit length (2.36 cm) observed in genotype 7. The highest diameter, fruit flesh thickness and flesh weight recorded in cv. Golole. Also, the highest oil content in fresh matter (23.71%) belonged to cv. Zard. The results of principle component analysis (PCA) revealed that the first six components explained 91.47% of the total variation in morpho-physiological characteristics and oil quality properties. In PCA, fruit length, fruit diameter, stone dimensions, fruit and stone weight, flesh weight, fruit coloring and ripening times were predominant in the first component, indicating that these characteristics can be useful for evaluation of olive germplasm. Overall results of this study showed that some olive cultivars such as cv. Zard and cv. Golole were better adapted to the environmental conditions of the target areas in Ilam province in Iran.

Olive (Olea europaea L.) is an evergreen tree and one of the most important products of the horticultural section in Iran due to high nutritional value of its oil and fruits. Adaptation of olive cultivars to the climatic conditions of different regions are not the same. The results of studies showed that special cultivars are recommended for each region. In tropical and subtropical climates with mild winter such as Ahvaz, the chilling requirement of olive trees is not completed. This condition has led to poor and insufficient flowering in some olive cultivars. Mineral oils, including volck oil are one of the most beneficial treatments to complete chilling requirement and bud break in fruit trees. The aim of this study was to investigate the response of two olive cultivars (Manzanilla and khaziri) to the application of volck mineral oil and studying their flowering and biochemical characteristics in Ahvaz condition.

In this experiment, the effect of volck mineral oil spraying [control (water spray), 1, 3, 5 %] on two olive cultivars were investigated. The experimental design was split plot arranged in complete block design with four replications. Measured traits included flowering characteristics such as the number of inflorescences in the branch, flowers in inflorescence, complete flowers, flowering days after treatments, percentage of flower fall, fresh and dry weight of flower and inflorescence. Biochemical properties such as bud carbohydrates and ABA, leaf proline and chlorophyll were measured.

The results showed that foliar application of 3 and 5 % volck oil caused flowering (31.8 and 28.7 days after treatment, respectively) in Manzanilla cultivar. Bud carbohydrate content increased significantly after tree spraying with volck oil in all of three concentrations. The highest content of bud carbohydrates (78.68 mg/g) was obtained in khaziri when treated with 3% volck oil. The use of volck oil was effective in increasing the ABA concentration in Manzanilla cultivar and its effect was as 3 and 5% volck oil (83.1 and 105.4 µg/g, respectively). The amount of proline in both cultivars increased until 60 days after applying three concentrations of volck oil. The levels of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll increased until 30 days after treatment and then were decreased. Volck oil (3%) can be used for flowering of Manzanilla cultivar in climatic conditions of Ahvaz.

Based on the obtained results, it seems that the effect of volck oil on flowering and biochemical traits depends on the type and concentration of mineral oil and type of the cultivar. In the present study, flowering occurred when Manzanilla cultivar treated with mineral volck oil (3 and 5%) and the flowering traits were improved at 3% oil more than other treatments.

Olive (Olea europaea L.) is one of the important horticultural crops in Iran which is planted in subtropical regions. In most parts of these regions temperature, particularly during the summer, rises to the level of heat-stress for this plant species. There is a scarcity of information about the heat tolerance of olive cultivars and also about effective physiological and biochemical mechanisms by which they response to this stress. Therefore, understanding of these mechanisms and also going toward the selection and cultivation of high tolerant varieties are within the olive breeding objects.

To study the impact of heat stress on physiological and biochemical traits changes as well as the expression pattern of phenylalanine amonialyase (PAL) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) genes, a factorial experiment based on a completely randomized design was carried out in 2017. One-year-old own-rooted olive plants cvs. Zard and Direh were transferred into the artificial growth chamber and exposed to the different thermal conditions following an adaptation period. Thermal treatments included 32 oC (referred to as the before-stress stage, for three months), 45 oC (referred to as the stress-stage, for one month), and 36 oC for five days which referred to as the after-stress stage. Different traits including cumulative shoot growth and dry weight, relative water content (RWC), electrolyte leakage (EL), malondialdehyde contents (MDA), the maximum quantum yield of PSII (Fv/Fm), the minimum chlorophyll fluorescence (Fo), PPO and PAL enzyme activities and their genes expression pattern were studied. Data were analyzed by SAS 9.1 software, and the mean comparisons were made by LSD (P ≤0.01).

The findings related to growth indexes, i.e., the cumulative shoot growth and dry weight, demonstrated the relative superiority of ‘Zard’ compared with that of ‘Direh’ under heat stress. The RWC was decreased significantly in leaf samples of both cultivars in response to high temperature. However, this reduction was more pronounced in ‘Direh’. The extent of injury to cell structures, based on the measurement of EL and MDA indexes, indicated that ‘Zard’ got suffer less damage than ‘Direh’ under heat stress and also recovered itself quicker at the recovery stage. Under heat stress conditions, a more and significant decrease in terms of the Fv/Fm index was shown in ‘Direh’ compared with ‘Zard’. In contrast with the Fv/Fm , the Fo index was higher significantly in ‘Zard’. The PPO and PAL activity was increased, with pronounced effect in ‘Zard’, under heat stress condition. The activity of PPO in both cultivars was declined following the heat stress at the recovery stage. The analysis of the expression patterns of genes related to PPO and PAL revealed their up-regulation in both cultivars in response to heat stress. The relative increase of PPO and PAL genes expression in ‘Zard’ and ‘Direh’ under heat stress conditions was respectively 3 and 1.5 times more than the before-stress stage.

The results here showed that olive cv. Zard had relatively more tolerance to heat stress. Also, this cultivar had a high ability to recover its physiological and biochemical traits following the heat stress at the recovery stage.

Limitation of water resources and salinity of water and soil are important factors in the development of olive cultivation and production. Therefore, it is very important to select and introduce salinity tolerant olive cultivars. This study was carried out using six olive cultivars and promising genotypes (Conservolia, Koroneiki, Amin, D1, Ds8 and Ozineh2) and three salinity treatment (0, 50, 200 mMl-1 NaCl) as factorial experiment in completely randomized design with three replications in controlled environment. The results showed that with increasing salinity, the Na+ content increased in roots, stems and leaves tissues. The concentration of Na+, Cl- and K+ in these tissues was affected by salinity levels and olive genotypes. As the salt concentration increased, the potassium content and K+/Na+ ratio significantly decreased in roots, stems and leaves tissues. Transfer of Cl- from root to stem and leaves in susceptible cultivars and genotypes was higher than in tolerant genotypes. Cultivar Conservolia and genotypes and D1 genotype had the lowest leaf area. Salt injury index of showed that cv. Amin and Ds8 genotype had no injury symptom. However cv. Conservolia and D1 genotype showed the greatest injury symptoms by salinity stress. According to the results of this research, cv. Amin and Ds8 genotype were identified as tolerant, Ozineh2 promising genotype relatively susceptible, cv. Koroneiki as susceptible, and cv. Conservolia and D1 genotype as very susceptible to salt stress.

The evergreen tree olive (Olea europaea L.) is considered as one of the oldest plants cultivated in the Mediterranean basin. Drought is one of the most abiotic stresses that reduces olive yield in tropical and subtropical climates. Hence, identification of tolerant cultivars for cultivation in drought-prone areas is considered as one of important strategies in increasing cultivated areas for this plant. This study was aimed to investigate some of commercial cultivars and promising genotypes of olive using several yield-based drought tolerance and susceptibility indices.

To investigate the effect of drought stress on fruit yield and oil percentage in the 20 commercial cultivars and promising genotypes of olive, an factorial experiment based on randomized complete block with three replications was performed in Taroum Olive Research Station located in Zanjan province, during 2015-2017 cropping seasons. During the endocarp hardening period, drought treatments were applied based on cut of irrigation to the appearance of stress symptoms in the tree. Calculation of nine drought tolerance and susceptibility indices based on fruit yield and oil percentage under drought and normal irrigated conditions, correlations among indices and yields and principle component analysis based on correlation coefficient matric were followed.

Based on results, drought reduced fruit yield in all cultivars and genotypes, while it increased oil percentage in some of genotypes. Correlation coefficient analysis showed that all indices except TOL and SSI had significant positive relation with fruit yield and oil percentage under non-stress and drought stress conditions. The results of principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the first two components justified 98.78 and 99.59% of the total variation of fruit yield and oil percentage, respectively. The angles between indices in biplots rendered by PC1 and PC2 confirmed the results of correlation analysis. With respect to all three-dimensional graphs rendered by yields and STI index, promising genotype T7 placed in A group and it was selected as the most tolerant genotypes than others. Furthermore, this result was supported by the results of principal component analysis.

In general, our results revealed that the genotype T7 was identified as the most drought tolerant than other cultivars and genotypes. Thus, use of this genotype in breeding programs for improving tolerant of olive and also for cultivation in drought-prone environments is recommended. According to this results there was significant genetic diversity between studding genotypes that can be used in any improvement perspectives in the breeding projects.

Local genotypes and wild species are regarded as national genetic resources of plants in each country and much effort should be made to preserve and prevent their extinction. Given that Iran is one of the origin area of olive in the world, identifying and protecting the olive resources, identifying the old orchards and organizing the genotypes have special importance.

In this study, 32 genotypes were evaluated using morphological markers according to the standard methods of the International Olive Council, which was approved by the Seed and Plant Registration and Certification Institute. This method comprises 33 morphological traits for leaf, stone and fruit. Of these, 11 quantitative traits and 22 qualitative attributes were studied. Quantitative traits were determined in 30 fruits and stones and 15 leaves. The cluster analysis, grouping and factor analysis and principle component analysis were performed.

The results showed that there were some significant differences at 0.1% probability level among the genotypes studied in terms of fruit weight, fruit length, fruit diameter, fruit length to diameter ratio and flesh percentage and stone weight, stone length, stone diameter, and stone length to diameter ratio.. The highest fruit weight was observed in genotype I7 (3.88 g). The highest fruit lengths were in genotypes B13 (25.28 mm) and F1 (25.15 mm). The highest fruit diameter was in genotype I7 (16.48 mm). The highest stone weight was seen in genotypes G4 (0.95 g) and the highest stone length was related to F1 (21.55 mm). The genotype F12 had the highest leaf length (65.66 mm), but did not have any significant difference with genotype D2, F9, D10, A12 and A10. The genotype F12 had the highest leaf width (14.77 mm). In evaluating the qualitative traits of fruit, most genotypes had symmetrical shape and about one third of genotypes were partly symmetric, while there was not seen any asymmetric shape among genotypes. Correlation analysis showed that there is a significant correlation between the majorities of measured traits. According to the results, the highest correlation was observed between stone weight and stone diameter (r = 0.86). In cluster analysis, 32 genotypes were divided into six main clusters in the distance of 0.68. Based on the factor analysis, the data of this study have four main factors, in which justified about 91% of the total variance. Analysis of the principle component confirmed the existence of high morphological variability among the genotypes.

According to the results of this study, there was a highly genetic diversity among olive genotypes located in Hashemabad Gorgan, therefore they could be promising genotypes in propagation programs, breeding, and development of olive commercial orchards and cultivar selection in Golestan province.

This experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of different concentrations of indole butric acid (IBA) (0, 2000 and 4000 ppm) and puterscine (0, 100 and 200 ppm) on some of the morphological and biochemical traits of hard- rooting cutting of olive cv. Concervolia. Experimental treatments were arranged as factorial in randomized complete block design with three replications. Analysis of variance showed that IBA × puterscine effect was significant on rooting and callusing percentage, root number, root weight, shoot number and shoot weight as well as on carbohydrates and nitrogen content, C:N ratio, peroxidase and polyphenol oxidizes. The highest peroxides (0.114 µmol min-1 gFW-1), polyphenol oxidase (0.140 µmol min-1 gFW-1) and rooting percent (100%) were obtained in cuttings treated with 4000 ppm IBA, while rooting was 80 percentage in cutting treated with 4000 ppm IBA+100 ppm puterscine. Based on the results of this research, it can be cancluded that the concentration of 4000 ppm of indole butyric acid or the combination of 4000 ppm of indole-butyric acid and 100 ppm puterscine can be used for enhancing rooting in the hard- rooting cuttings of olive cv. Concervolia.

Olive is one of the most important fruit trees in Zanjan province. Currently, Tarom County has the highest olive cultivation area in the country. Selection of suitable and compatible cultivars is one of the most important factors in the development of fruit trees cultivation in each region. Therefore, high yielding cultivars with favorable characteristics and adaptable to a special environmental conditions can be selected by investigating the diversity among different olive cultivars. This study was carried out to investigate the compatibility of six Greek olive cultivars for Tarom region.

This study was implemented during 2013 to 2015 in a randomized complete block design with three replications and six cultivars at Tarom Olive Research Station. The tested cultivars were Amphysis, Halkidiki, Megaron, Tiaki, Agromanaki and Patrini. Vegetative and reproductive characteristics such as tree height, tree width, TCSA, inflorescences per shoot, flowers per inflorescence, percentage of perfect flowers, percentage of fruit set and fruit characteristics such as fruit fresh weight, stone weight, pulp/stone ratio for 30 fruits per tree, fruit yield and oil content were measured. Fruit oil was extracted by using Soxhlet and Diethyl ether and the oil content was determined in dry and fresh matter. Data were analyzed using SAS statistical software.

The results showed that there was a significant difference between cultivars for all vegetative and reproductive characteristics. Tiaki and Halkidiki cultivars had the highest tree height and canopy width, while the Megaron cultivar had the lowest height and canopy width. In terms of number of inflorescences per shoot, Patrini and Megaron cultivars were superior to others. Percentage of fruit set varied depending on the cultivar and showed significant differences among the cultivars. Tiaki cultivar with 1.88 and halkidiki cultivar with 0.52 percent had the highest and lowest fruit set, respectively. fruit Fresh weight varied from 1.71 g in Tiaki to 8.38 g in Halkidiki cultivar. The highest fruit yield was obtained from Halkidiki, while Agromanaki cultivar had the lowest yield. The highest fruit yield efficiency belonged to the Megaron cultivar. Amphysis and Tiaki cultivars had the highest oil percentage in dry matter.

According to the results, Halkidiki and Megaron cultivars are suggested as dual-purpose cultivars for commercial orchards at Tarom and climatically similar conditions due to higher yields, large fruits and appropriate oil percentages. Moreover, Megaron cultivar can be suitable for high density production systems due to its moderate growth and high yield efficiency.

Ilam is one of the rich olive germplasm resources in Iran. Identification and study of adaptation of native olive genotypes is of great importance for establishment of olive orchards. This research was carried out on 15 olive genotypes collected from Ilam province to evaluate pomological and fruit yield in comparison with cv. Amphissis as check cultivar from 2015 till 2018 at Sarpole-e-Zehab Olive Research Station, Sarpol-e-Zahab, Iran. The experimental design was randomized complete block with three replications. The results showed that pomological traits such as fruit, pit and flesh weight, flesh: pit ratio, fruit and pit dimensions were significantly different among genotypes. Fruit weight varied from 3.28 to 7.92 grams among olive genotypes. Fruit yield also differed among genotypes, BSCH2, BSCH3, SKE7, SKE8, BSCH1, DZ4 and SBM5 had higher fruit yield. Oil content in dry matter was significantly different among genotypes. Oil content in dry matter of NS3, SBM2, SBM1, SKE7, DZ4, PG3 and NS4 genotypes varied from 30-40%, and categorized as low oil olive genotypes. In general, results showed that BSCH2, BSCH3, SKE7, SKE8, BSCH1, DZ4 and SBM5 genotypes performed as promising genotypes with higher fruit yield at eight to nine years old trees and can be used for being released as new cultivars as well as establishing of new olive orchards.

Olive (Olea europaea L.) is one of the every green trees that tolerance to Drought. Olive is an economically important species of the Mediterranean area, so understanding the mechanisms by which olive plants face drought stress under environmental conditions is essential for the improvement of olive yield and oil quality. Drought is one of the most important environmental stresses that affect plant growth and development negatively. This study was aimed to investigate the effect of drought stress on some morphological characteristics of some superior local olive genotypes in pot condition was conducted in Dallaho Olive Research Station (geographical characters was longitude of 45˚, 51΄ E and latitude of 34˚, 30΄ N and the height of sea level 581m) located in Kermanshah province. In order to select drought resistant or tolerant local olive genotypes an experiment in pot conditions was conducted. Seven olive genotypes (D1, Dd1, GW, Ps1, Bn3, Bn6 and Ds17) used as plant materials. Pot experiment based on completely randomized design with three replications and two factors (irrigation regimes and genotypes) was conducted in 2015. Irrigation Ttreatment were including of 100% (control), 80%, 60% and 50% of evapotranspiration respectively. Some vegetative characteristics such as plant height, trunk diameter, leaf number, leaf, shoot, and root fresh and dry weight were recorded. Collected data were analyzed with MSTATC program. Obtained results showed that Bn3 genotype had the highest height and D1 had the lowest height. Bn3 genotype had the highest number of leaf and D1 had the lowest but D1, Dd1 and Gw were in a statistic class. Genotypes showed significant differences in leaf fresh and dry weight so that Bn3 genotype had the highest leaf fresh and dry weight and D1 had the lowest. Genotypes indicated significant differences in pot in shoot and root fresh and dry weight so that Ds17 genotype had the lowest shoot fresh and dry weight and Gw had the lowest root fresh and dry weight. and Bn6 had the lowest root dry weight/ shoot dry weight ratio. irrigation treatments significant differences in recorded vegetative and physiological characteristics so that 100 percent irrigation treatment increase relative water content percent (RWC), total chlorophyll. among olive genotypes Bn3 and Ds17 had the highest, relative water content percent (RWC), total chlorophyll and mda less produced. The results indicated that olive genotypes had different resistance to drought and vegetative growth status of Bn3 and Ds17 genotypes were better in drought stress conditions. It can be concluded that Bn3 and Ds17 genotype had the relatively high resistance to drought stress.

In olive, the propagation through cutting is a simple and fast method for maintenance of genetic uniformity as well as precocity as compared to seedlings. However, difficult to root behavior of some varieties is one of the problems in this regard that has different reasons. Hence, to enhance the rooting ability of two olive varieties, the present study was designed and implemented. Materials and Applications: The experiment was carried out as factorial experiment in a completely randomized block design with eight treatments, three replications and two application methods. The hormonal treatments included Auxin (Indole butyric acid (IBA)) at the concentration of 3000 ppm, alone or combined with putrecine (Put: 100, 200 ppm), Phloroglucinole (PG: 125, 250 ppm), Tyrosine (Thyr: 250, 500 ppm). The application of treatments was done by two methods of soaking (immersion of cutting bases in a solution) or foliar application (spraying the treatments on the cuttings). The results showed that the reaction of two olive cultivars was different to the applied treatments, so that rooting percentage and longest root length did not affect the cultivar, but the other measured parameters were different in two cultivars. Root number, root length, fresh and dry weight of root in Mission was more than Koroneiki cultivar. The leaf area and also the survival rate of olive cuttings after transplanted to pot were higher in Koroneiki compared to Mission cultivar. The results showed that all treatments increased root number, fresh weight, dry weight, rooting percentage, leaf area and survival rate of olive cuttings significantly compared to control treatment, while the highest increase was observed in auxin treatments in joint with PG (250 ppm) or put (200 ppm) compared to control treatment. Regardless of the olive cultivar, the application of treatment method is also considered to be significant, Hence, the highest number of roots and their length, root fresh / dry weight were recorded in soaking Application while the higher number of new leaves, leaf area, number of new shoots and their length as well as rooting percentage were found in mico-cuttings treated though foliar spray. The results of this study clearly showed that the joint application of auxin with some chemical compounds such as phloroglucinol, putrescin and tyrosine can improve the rooting of olive cuttings and their joint application in commercial nurseries is recommended to propagate olive cultivars by cuttings.