protein

Oak trees (Quercus infectoria) are one of the main components of forest communities in western Iran and play a vital role in preserving water and soil in this region. Oak gall wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) cause gall on different parts of oak trees. This research was conducted to investigate the concentration of some plant metabolites in different tissues of oak trees and some leaf galls formed by gall wasps and their changes during the growing season in the Javanroud region. For this purpose, four types of galls (Neuroterus numismalis Geoffroy, Neuroterus quercusbaccarum L., Cynips divisa Harting, and Cynips quercusfolii L.), leaves containing gall, and healthy leaves were collected as a sampling unit from oak forests in Javanroud city. This study measured the concentration of some food compounds and secondary metabolites, such as soluble and insoluble sugars, total phenol, total tannin, and condensed tannin. The results of the variance analysis of the data showed that the concentration of different metabolites during the season in four different types of gall and the two investigated tissues were significantly different. The results showed that the peak concentration of carbohydrates and starch in all four types of galls and two types of plant tissue occurs in October, while the highest amount of total nitrogen and crude protein is found in September. Because gall tissue is considered the only food source for the gall-producing wasps, the quality of its food seems very important to them.

The greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella is one of the most important pests of beehives in Iran and the world. Which leads to the death of weak honey bee colonies. Also, this insect is an important laboratory host for the isolation and mass production of the entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes. In this research, the effect of pollens of different plants including poppy, wild rapeseed, rapeseed and apple in artificial diet, were evaluated on some physiological and biological parameters of this insect. The highest amount of the last instar larval gut protein was recorded in the diet containing poppy pollen (20.22 mg/ml) and no significant difference was observed between the other treatments. The highest relative activity of digestive alpha-amylase and pectinase in the last instar larval gut was related to the diets containing poppy pollen (100 %), and the lowest relative enzymes activity was recorded in the diet containing rapeseed pollen (51.12 and 76.35 %, respectively). Larvae fed with the diet containing poppy pollen and the resulting pupae had a higher weight than the other diets (325 and 175 mg, respectively). The highest percentage of larval survival and pupation was related to the diets containing poppy (77.5 and 77.5 %), apple (62.5 and 70 %), rapeseed (52.5 and 47.5 %) and wild rapeseed (47.5 and 30 %) pollens, respectively. However, there was no significant difference in the percentage of adult emergence in different diets. Consequently, the diets containing rapeseed and wild rapeseed pollens compared to poppy and apple, are not suitable diets for rearing G. mellonella and it is better to use poppy pollen in the preparation of artificial diet for the mass rearing of this insect.

The Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) (Hubner, 1813) is one of the most important and well-known stored-product pests in most parts of the world. The larvae of this insect are omnivorous and have the ability to grow and reproduce on a wide variety of grains, dried fruits, dried vegetables, nuts, oil seeds, chocolate, animal feed and various processed products. Therefore, it causes economic losses to various agricultural and stored products. On the other hand, this insect is used as a host in the rearing of various useful insect species. In general, the Indian moth eats carbohydrate-rich foods, and its growth and development is highly dependent on biochemical compounds and especially the quality and quantity of nutrients in its diet. The enzymes like amylase and pectinase in the digestive system of the lepidoperan larvae, which are secreted by the cells of the midgut, play an effective role in the digestion and absorption of food. Investigating some of the biological and physiological properties of this insect on various types of foods will help to optimize the rearing of this insect for management studies and also as a host for rearing of other pest insect’s predators and parasitoids.
In this study, we investigated the effects of different diets, namely raisin, fig, pistachio, peanut, almond, and walnut, which are known to be the main hosts of the Indian meal moth, on the protein content in the last instar larval gut. We compared their protein patterns and content using SDS-PAGE. Additionally, we measured the activities of the digestive enzymes alpha-amylase and pectinase using the DNS (Dinitrosalicylic acid) assay. Alpha-amylase activity was assessed using 1% starch as a substrate, while pectinase activity was measured using pectin as the substrate. To facilitate a better comparison of the relative enzymatic activities, the activities were calculated as a percentage of the highest enzymatic activity. Furthermore, we compared several biological parameters, including the incubation period, larval period, pupal period, adult longevity, life span, and adult emergence.
The results of the study revealed that the Indian meal moth larvae had the lowest amounts of gut protein when fed on figs and raisins, while the highest amounts were observed in larvae fed on pistachios, peanuts, almonds, and walnuts. The determination of protein levels using the Bradford method and SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis yielded consistent results, clearly indicating the protein concentrations in the samples. The activity of the alpha-amylase enzyme in the larvae's gut was highest in those fed on pistachios and lowest in those fed on figs. Similarly, the pectinase enzyme showed the highest activity in larvae fed on pistachios and the lowest activity in those fed on raisins. The embryonic period of the Indian meal moth remained consistent across different diets. However, when comparing the duration of the larval period, pupal period, and overall growth period, the shortest duration was observed in larvae fed on pistachios, while the longest duration was seen in those fed on raisins. The length of the growth period tends to increase when the insect is fed on less desirable food sources. Regarding lifespan, the shortest duration was observed in the diets consisting of almonds and pistachios, while the longest lifespan was recorded in those fed on raisins. When examining adult emergence, the diets of almonds and figs showed the highest and lowest values, respectively. In conclusion, pistachios, almonds, and walnuts were found to be more favorable diets for the Indian meal moth larvae compared to peanuts, figs, and raisins.
This study aimed to determine the optimal diet for rearing the Indian meal moth. The investigated diets, which are major food sources for this insect, were found to have an impact on the amount and concentration of intestinal protein in the last instar larvae, as well as the activity of alpha-amylase and pectinase enzymes. Significant differences were observed in various physiological and biological components among the diets. The highest values for all these components were observed in the larvae reared on a pistachio diet, while the lowest values were found in those reared on fig and raisin diets. Based on the findings of this research, it can be concluded that pistachio, walnut, and almond diets are favorable and suitable for laboratory breeding of the Indian meal moth, compared to peanut, raisin, and fig diets. Among these diets, pistachio was identified as the most optimal choice.

Black soldier fly (BSF) larvae, Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), can effectively convert the organic wastes into a nutrient-rich biomass and appropriate for animal feed, the composition of larve largely dependent on the composition and structure of the side stream which are used. The polyphage diet and the quality of the larvae's macronutrients (mainly lipids and proteins) make them suitable candidates for different applications such as organic side-streams management and using as protein sources in animal feed. In the present study, BSF larvae were reared on feed substrates composed of Mix of fruit and date pulp, Mix of fruit and olive pulp, mix of waste fruit and bread and waste fruit which is a readily available and cheap source of agriculture,s by product in Iran. The dry matter, crude fat, crude protein and ash of the BSF larvae fed each feed waste organic were quantified by chemical analyses. Larval weight, survival and feed conversion were also recorded. The results showed that the mixed of date and fruit pulp and the mixed of olive and fruit pulp are suitable diets for BSF rearing. Our findings may provide important supporting information to support the use of BSF larval meal as potential new source of nutrient- rich and supportable animal feed ingredients to substitute expensive and limited protein sources such as fishmeal and soya beanmeal.

Plant viruses cause major losses to agricultural crops worldwide. Plants react to the virus infections via several defense mechanisms, such as ubiquitination. Ubiquitin (Ub) and ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) play key role in the function modification and degradation of proteins in plants. Ub attachment to the cellular proteins alters the stability, the cellular establishment or activity of the target protein. The key role of UPS has been revealed in defense mechanisms and other plant processes. Viruses as obligate intracellular parasites have evolved mechanisms to interfere UPS. In some cases, it has been shown that viral proteins were targeted by this system. Ubiquitination plays an important role in plant–virus interaction which can lead to plant resistance or pathogenicity in the host plant. Therefore, further understanding of UPS and its role in plant-virus interaction can develop novel methods to increase resistance to viral infections in plants.

In current research, the effect of four artificial diets containing cowpea, red kidney bean, navy bean and corn seed flour on protein content of 4th instars whole body; 5th and 6th instars larval and pre-pupal gut and fat bodies; and pupal whole body of the cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera Hübner), were investigated. Also, the effect of different diets on the digestive α-amylase and pectinase was studied. Protein patterns were also compared using SDS-PAGE. According to the results, the lowest amount of protein in 4 th instars whole body and 5 th instars gut and fat bodies was seen in corn as diet and highest one was in navy bean diet. Insects reared on the corn as diet did not developed to 6 th larval stage during the experiment. Except for the protein content of 6 th instars fat bodies, no significant differences were observed in the other treatments of the 6 th instars and pre-pupa. The lowest amount of pupal protein was found in red kidney bean diet and the highest one was in navy bean diet. Due to the decrease in protein content in different diets, insect weight and the activity of digestive α-amylase and pectinase were also affected and significant differences were observed. The least weight and activity of enzymes were recorded in corn diet. Diferences in the amount of protein was also detected in SDS-PAGE. Consequently, artificial diets of corn and red kidney bean are not suitable for this insect rearing and white bean and cowpea are reported as appropriate diets.

Geminiviruses (Geminiviridae family) with small circular ssDNA genome are encoding just four to seven proteins on virion and complementary-sense strands of their genomes. To have a progressive infection, they are dependent mostly on host cellular machineries and interact with wide range of different host plants factors and processes. Geminiviruses alter the cell cycle in infected plants and they can support replication of viral DNA. They change host gene expression patterns, inhibit cell death pathways, alter macromolecule trafficking and interfere with protein modification to redirect or suppress host defenses and hormones signaling. Geminiviruses encode gene silencing suppressors to interfere with post-transcriptional gene silencing and alter plant DNA methylation and microRNA (miRNA) pathways, often causing developmental abnormalities. Here, the geminiviruses are discussed as one of the most destructive plant viruses and their proteins interactions with host cell factors and pathways are described.

The success of any raw material used in the industrial and mass production of entomopathogenic fungi depends on the extent to which it can provide the optimum food requirement for the fungus. The biological control strategy using entomopathogenic fungi like B. bassiana and M. anisopliae can only be useful if practical and economic methods of mass multiplication are available. In this study, the effects of Protein and Vitamins Supplements on chlamydospores production of these two fungi were investigated. The results of this study showed that different treatments of Protein and Vitamins Supplements in complete liquid culture for chlamydespore cycle of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae fungi in terms of production spores, germination percentage, wet weight and dry weight difference Significant at 1% probability level. The highest concentration of chlamydosporum, germination percentage, wet weight and dry weight of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae were whey protein supplement and multivitamin at aconcentration of 6 ml / liter. Also, the results of this study showed that these two species of pathogenic fungus can be replicated with good performance of sugarcane by products and maintain the germination capacity of chlamydospores

  Plant pathogens, insects and weeds contribute to more than 30% of crop losses annually. Toxic chemical bactericides have been extensively used to control plant pathogenic bacteria. These chemicals pose a health threat to humans and the environment and eventually lead to resistance of pathogens. Hence, breeding cultivars resistance to bacterial pathogens is a valuable and sustainable solution. Antimicrobial peptides (AMP) are a part of the immune system of all living organisms, including plants, to combat pathogenic bacteria. Hairy roots (HRs) system is a valuable tool to produce and evaluate the activity of AMPs in planta. The aim of this study was to produce a Dermaseptin B1 (Drs-B1) recombinant AMP in transgenic tobacco HRs using Agrobacterium rhizogenes and test its antibacterial activities.
Material and The DNA encoding sequence of a Drs-B1 peptide of a frog was codon optimized based and synthesized in the pGSA1285 expression vector under the control of 35S CaMV promoter (×3). A gene cassette containing the Drs-B1 gene was introduced to tobacco roots by Agrobacterium rhizogenesis mediated transformation. The transgenic HRs were confirmed by molecular methods. Antimicrobial activity of the protein extracts from transgenic HRs showed that the recombinant protein was able to prevent Pectobacterium carotovorum, Erwinia amylovora and Xanthomonas citri plant pathogenic bacteria growth. The anti-bacterial effects of Drs-B1 peptide against plant pathogenic bacteria were in the order of X. citri> E. amylovora >P. carotovorum. The peptide present in transgenic DrsB1-expressing HRs clones inhibited devastating plant pathogenic bacteria growth, suggesting that DrsB1 retains its antibacterial activity in plant cells. The results of present study may open promising opportunities to produce transgenic plants expressing antimicrobial peptides resistance to plant pathogens

Microcerotermes diversus Silvesteri is the most destructive termite pest among subterranean termites in tropical and subtropical regions, including Khuzestan province. In this research, effect subletral concentrations of fenoxycarb (500, 2500 and 5000 ppm) were studied on protein, lipid and carbohydrates contents in termite workers under laboratory conditions. The protein, lipid, sugar and glycogen were determined in milligram per gram of fresh weight. The concentration of 500 ppm had the greatest effect on energy sources with decreases in the amount of protein by 45.51%, lipid 63.34%, and energy content 59.93% compared to the controls. Also amount of sugar 37.20% and glycogen 17.04 % increases compared to the controls. Reduction in the energy content due to fenoxycarb effect can reduce survivorship in the termite.

Pistachio hull borer, Arimania comaroffi (Rogonot)(Lep: Pyralidae) is an insect pest which has turn into an outbreak in some pistachio orchards of Rafsanjan. In order to study feeding indices and total proteolytic enzymatic activity, larvae of A. comaroffi were reared on fruits of five pistachio varieties including, Ahmadaghai, Akbari, Ohadi, Kaleghochi and Momtaz at 25±2ºC, 45±5% RH and 16:8 (L:D) h. In each experimental container, one larva at the same initial weight was located on one fruit of each pistachio variety. Every 24 h, fruits were changed and larval weight gain, weight of skin of pistachio's fruit and weigh of larval feces were recorded. The total protein of fruits skin of different pistachio varieties was evaluated as well. Based on the results, the lowest amounts of conversion efficiency of ingested food and conversion efficiency of digested food were in larvae reared on fruit of Ohadi variety and the lowest proteolytic activity was in larvae fed on fruits of Ohadi and Akbari varieties. The highest feeding indices and protease activity were in larvae fed on Momtaz. The lowest protein content of pistachio fruits skin was on Ohadi and Akbari, and the highest content was on Momtaz. There was a positive correlation between protein content of tested varieties and protease activity of larvae. According to the result of cluster analysis, Ohadi, Ahmadaghai, and Akbari varieties had a negative significant effect on feeding efficiency of A. comaroffi larvae as compared with the other varieties.

Plants have many defense mechanisms against pathogens that can be stimulated and activated by some microorganisms or chemicals. There are five types of induced resistance in plants that are included: localized acquired resistance, systemic acquired resistance, systemic gene silencing, induced systemic resistance, and systemic wounding response. Systemic acquired resistance is the most important type of induced resistance in plants that result in continuous and prolonged protection from infection against a wide range of pathogens. Formation of pathogenesis related proteins, alteration of cell wall with sedimentation and binding of polysaccharides, proteins, glycol-proteins, phenols, phytotoxins, and ligninification are the stages of occurrence of this type of resistance in plants.

Stored bioenergetic resources in overwintering adults of sunn pest Eurygaster integriceps Put is important in their winter survival. In this research, the effects of pyriproxyfen 10 % EC, JH anologues, have been studied on bioenergetic resources in Sunn pest adults under field conditions. The experiments were analysed in factorial completely randomised design (FCRD). The main factors were the pyriproxyfen concentration levels (0, 100, 300 and 500 µl/l), sex (male and female), sampling time after treatment (3, 6 and 12 day) and number of treatment (first and second). Results showed that pyriproxyfen affected significantly on total lipid, glycogen, sugar, protein and energy content. All of three concentration increased lipid content compared with control. After taking into account the control, respectively 157.96%, 39.38% and 103.24% increase in lipids were observed in 100, 300 and 500 concentration levels. The most reductions in carbohydrate and protein were observed in adults that retreated with the concentration of 300 μl/l.

In order to study the pollution potential of TiO2 nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs) on ecological health، this research was carried out on the cellular energy allocation (CEA) of Glyphodes pyloalis Walker exposed to TiO2-NPs. The newly ecdysed fifth instar larvae of G. pyloalis were treated with LC10، LC20، LC30، LC40 and LC50 concentrations of TiO2-NPs and the amount of energy available (Ea)، energy consumption (Ec) and cellular energy allocation were compared. The resulting calculated energy reserves (lipid، carbohydrate، glycogen and protein) showed that increasing the time of exposure، the total lipid and carbohydrate amounts significantly decreased، when the LC30، LC40 and LC50 concentrations were applied. The amounts of glycogen in the larvae treated with LC10، LC20 and LC30 concentrations of TiO2-NPs were increased، whereas the LC40 and LC50 concentrations led to decrease in the amount of glycogen. The significant reduction in the amount of total protein compared to the control and over all three days of treatment was observed for LC50 concentration of TiO2-NPs; however، the LC10 concentration lead to a significant increase of the total protein after three days. Ea decreased in a dose-response related manner and over all time points، but it significantly increased in treated larvae by LC10 and LC20 concentrations after two days. Ec increased as concentrations grew to LC30 and then started to decrease. The results showed that CEA was not affected by LC10 concentration، but significantly decreased when the concentration increased and at all time points probably as a cost to deal with TiO2-NPs detoxification. Therefore، it will be possible to use the CEA as an appropriate early biomarker for the impacts of TiO2-NPs.

The rice brown spot disease caused by Bipolaris oryzae is distributed in most of rice cultivated regions and some time causes economic recession. Plants are under attack by diverse pests and pathogens. They have evolved different mechanisms to survive against invaders. Similar to the other plants، rice employs structural and chemical barriers to defense against pathogens. The pathogenesis- related proteins have crucial role in chemical defense. In this survey، the expression pattern of several resistance genes (Thionin، Defensing، Allen oxide synthase، Proxidase) were considered in two rice cultivars under treatment of B. oryzae fungus، using Quantitative Real Time PCR. The Tarom and Khazar cultivars have been selected as susceptible and resistance cultivars، respectively. Results showed considerable increase in expression rate of all genes in both genotypes after inoculation than that of control plant in every hours. Data analysis using T-student test program also showed that there are significant differences between Tarom and Khazar cultivars with the expression of mentioned genes. The findings proves that Thionin، Defensin، Allen oxide synthase and Proxidase genes play a prominent role in rice resistance to B. oryzae. This result can be an introduction to use of mentioned genes for overexpression and generate resistant rice to destructive brown spot disease in breeding program.