central courtyard

The facade architecture of the introverted historical houses of the central plateau of Iran is more evident in the central courtyard. According to the diversity of the central courtyard facade architecture in multiple fronts, it seems that there are various effective factors in the formation of the courtyard facade architecture of historical Qajar houses, and it is necessary to identify the effective factors comprehensively and in terms of impact. be classified from high to low. The research seeks to know what factors and sub-factors are effective in the formation of the architecture of the central courtyard of historical houses of the Qajar period in the hot and dry climate of the central plateau of Iran (with a case study of Qazvin city)? What is the classification of these factors and sub-factors in the formation of the architecture of the central courtyard view according to the degree of influence? Identifying the influencing factors on the architectural formation of the facade of the central courtyard of historical Qajar houses (with a case study of Qazvin city) and classifying these factors based on the degree of influence of each factor. The type of research is fundamental in terms of the goal, and the research method in response to the big question is a survey of basic theories and a field visit to the historical Qajar houses of Qazvin city and a local conversation and a conversation with elites. In response to a detailed question, the Delphi method has been used to rank the impact of each of the factors and sub-factors based on the opinion of experts and professionals familiar with the architecture of the Qajar house and facade. In the following, a theoretical model was proposed and this model was reviewed and tested in the case of the research of ten Qajar historical houses in Qazvin. Eight main factors and thirty-three sub-factors were identified in the formation of the facade architecture of Qajar houses in Iran. The eight main factors in order of influence include: economic, climatic, construction technology, socio-cultural, aesthetic, spatial, political and urban planning. Each of these factors have been relatively effective in the formation of the architecture of the central courtyard. According to the opinion of the experts of the basic theories and the test of the presented theoretical model, the most effective is the "economic factor" and the least effective is the "urbanization factor". In the ranking of thirty-three effective sub-factors, the most effective sub-factor was "radiation" and the least effective sub-factor was "urban architecture".

Past architectures have undergone many tests in their physical structures and have reached stable combinations over the years. Among the climatic solutions of historical houses in interaction with nature, it has been harmonizing the form and the structure of architectural spaces. One of the main characteristics of native architecture in interaction with the natural environment is the components design , patterns and physical proportions based on environmental variables such as sunlight, seasons, etc.; In such a way that creating physical compatibility in historical houses with the natural environment, along with other considerations, guarantees less energy consumption and the benefit of environmental comfort. However, today to environmental problems, paying attention to climate-based characteristics has become more important; Therefore, it can provide specific standards in the process of modernizing and improving sustainability in future buildings. Meanwhile, the houses of the Safavid and Qajar era in Dezful city are valuable examples of architecture that have been well adapted to the special climatic conditions of Khuzestan. Based on this, in the current research, the identification of geometric patterns, proportionality and prevailing standards in the structures of the central courtyard, winter halls and seasonal rooms based on hot and humid climates is discussed. Also, the relationships of spaces are also studied based on physical characteristics; so that by comparing climatic criteria, a sustainable design pattern can be achieved based on structural patterns; Identified the most common spatial proportions in accordance with nature in this region; and used in accordance with today's needs.For this purpose, eleven residential buildings from the Safavid and Qajar eras were purposefully selected, which have gained significant prosperity in the city of Dezful. In the continuation of the investigation process of these houses, the data and information obtained from the study and field investigation were recorded in a table and with the help of calculation methods, logical reasoning of the data and their quantitative and qualitative analysis, a set of geometric proportions and spatial relationships were obtained. Finally, results were obtained that expressed the most common and practical dimensions, areas and geometric ratios and emphasized the relationship between spatial patterns and climatic and environmental data of hot and humid weather.

Abstract
Problem statement: Flexibility is considered one of the aspects of sustainability in buildings, as flexible spatial structure and configuration are required to meet their variable needs. Mosques, as one of the most significant spaces for the presence and collective activities of people, have always been used in different cultures and generations and accepted by various social activities. The main structure of Iranian mosques was formed during the Seljuk era, and they have kept this pattern until the present. The in-between spaces are one of the most important features of this structure, which have central roles in providing spatial organization and qualities.
The question raised here is as follows:What connection is established between the spatial quality and the configuration components of the in-between spaces on the one hand, and the quality of flexibility on the other hand by considering the quality of adaptability in the Seljuk mosques?
Research The research aims to signify the in-between spaces, their spatial definition, characteristics, and place in providing the quality of flexibility in the Grand Mosques of the Seljuk era.
Research This research is descriptive-interpretive with a quantitative-qualitative approach and inferential reasoning. The research statistical population includes all Grand Mosques that belong to the Seljuk era based on the ideas of relevant experts and researchers.
The spatial flexibility of the mosques in the Seljuk era was investigated based on the quality of spatial integration. The results were evaluated and compared by using two indicators of ‘spatial connection and integration. The research outcomes showed that there are some factors including spatial characteristics and the quality of layout, besides the area factor, that affect the mean-value of spatial integration and connectivity in the Grand Mosques of the Seljuk era. The more in-between spaces (the central courtyard, porch, and entrance space), the higher the spatial integrity and better quality of flexibility.

The yard has played a much more prominent role than ever. After the changes in the structure of the community, the house and yard changed. The present study investigates these changes and the reasons for their occurrence during the contemporary period.

The data collection is a documentary.

The results of the study indicate that in the past, the yard has been an organized element to the home, an element of light and ventilation of the spaces, a connector with nature, and providing a convenient space for family comfort and celebration. But the yard’s role today is merely the space between the house and the passage, the car movement, and sometimes the small gardens to make optimal use of the remaining areas of the motorway.

Due to society's changing social and cultural structures, resurrecting the same way traditional courtyard for today's society is in vain. The same traditional courtyards in the new urban design where the houses are overlapped have been changed to roof gardens that need to be in sight. These changes can be attributed to the developments in the Qajar era. Given these developments, the relationships and assumptions of the world of tradition were not capable of living in the contemporary world. All in all, modern man’s environmental perceptions changed. As the most relevant space to man, the house has undergone significant changes, and the yard, one of its most important spaces, has not been immune to these changes.

Research Problem:

 Living in the context of nature has led vernacular peoples to invent spaces in line with it. Therefore, their creativity and rich mind created elements that are compatible and responsive to the climate. A central courtyard, with a combination of water and plants, created a microclimate that influenced culture and climate; they created a semi-open space like a porch to take advantage of the optimal ambient temperature.Research Question: Based on the main problem of this research, key questions have been raised, such as; what effect do the physical proportions of porches and courtyards have on the thermal comfort index in semi-open and open spaces? Which of the physical parameters had the closest correlation with the thermal comfort index in the porches? What has been the role of the porch-yard variable on Indicators affecting environmental com-fort in open and semi-open spaces?

Aims of Research: 

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of physical proportions of open and semi-open spaces on the thermal performance of microclimates in traditional houses of Shiraz historical texture with the approach of thermal comfort in those spaces.

The research method of this work is a quantitative-comparative approach. Field measure-ment method (experimental; which includes measurements used by portable instruments in the targeted build-ings), climate data was collected with the help of instruments such as thermo-Hygrometers and Thermo-pyrometers. Then, the climatic data were retrieved and analyzed using simulation software, Envi-met (Climate Analysis Software), and the thermal comfort index PET (Physiologically Equivalent Temperature, an indicator for determining the temperature of comfort in open and semi-open spaces) was measured using Bio-met. Final-ly, the correlation (linear Pearson between 1 and -1) of SPSS23 software with climatic variables along with the physical characteristics of the porch and the central courtyard were validated. It should be noted that in this study, in two parts of descriptive and inferential statistical analysis, data analysis was performed, and an at-tempt was made to evaluate the differences between several statistical societies. Due to the dispersion of the whole data, analysis of variance between different groups is possible. In this way, the equality of the mean be-tween different groups can be tested.

The findings of the study indicate that the average amount of PET in the yard is higher than the porch. And the porch-yard component has increased the impact of climate data on this index. Among the climatic data, humidity has no effect on the PET index. The lowest mean radiant tem-perature recorded was in the north porch of Saadat House which was 2.38 degrees Celsius different from the west porch and 2.92 degrees Celsius different than the Manteghi nejad House. The north porch of the Saadat House showed the most optimal comfort index. Among the physical factors of the houses, it was seen that the height of the porch from the yard, the width and the area of the spatial opening of the porch in the facade had the closest correlation with the thermal comfort index. However, the north porch of Saadat house, with all the introduced coordinates, had a lower temperature. According to the results, it was observed that with increasing the width and area of the spatial opening of the porch in the facade and increasing the height of the yard on one hand and the amount of shading, on the other hand, we will see a decrease in radiant temperature and im-proved thermal comfort index.

The historical architecture of Iran is one of the prominent examples of vernacular architecture in the world. The central courtyard, which represents an ancient pattern in the construction of Iranian houses, has been used significantly in different cities of Iran, and its frequent use has contributed to the country's vernacular architectural features. Shiraz is one of the historical cities of Iran, where the historical context with valuable architectural works from the Zand and Qajar periods have been left. The Qavam al-Mulks, Mushir al-Mulks, Il Begis, and nobles such as Nasir al-Mulks families are considered to be one of the influential families of Shiraz in the Qajar and contemporary eras, whose works such as the houses of Forough al-Mulk, Nasir al-Mulk, Zinat al-Mulk, are among the valuable buildings of this family. In this research, two-hundred-year-old vernacular houses located in historic neighborhoods in Shiraz city have been studied, in which the geometry of the yard has played a significant role in creating spatial order. This research aims to investigate the central courtyard's proportions, geometry, and components and their use in semi-hot and dry areas such as Shiraz. The nature of the present research is qualitative. It has been carried out by a combined research method, including descriptive-analytical, which has been carried out using methods and data collection in the form of field sampling, observations, library studies, and comparative comparison. According to the research topic, the obtained data has been analyzed, and the results of the analysis are expressed in the form of components for the architecture of the yard in contemporary houses.

The use of pavilions and geometric principles in the design and construction of buildings in Iran is one of its architectural principles, so that in most buildings from the past to the present it is well considered and buildings that lack it are considered worthless. The house is one of the most important man-made structures that meets various human needs. In the architecture of the center of the Iranian plateau, the house is composed of various components, the most important of which is the central courtyard as a small garden in the heart of the house. The central courtyard, while connecting all the spaces, meets a variety of needs as well. The city of Kashan is several thousand years old and has a rich historical context with valuable houses. According to research, it is likely that these houses have been formed with their beautiful and coherent architecture with special geometric thinking and systems, and geometric principles have been used to build them. Now the main issue of this research is what geometric proportions and architectural systems have been used in the design and implementation of the central courtyard and its walls. The purpose of this study is to extract the architectural systems and geometric proportions used in the design of the central courtyard of the Qajar period houses in Kashan and to investigate the frequency of each of them. This research is based on the method of analysis of architectural systems and geometric proportions of the courtyard and its walls in ten houses of the Qajar period in Kashan in order to extract the architectural systems and its geometric proportions. The statistical population has been selected based on the index of the building and the existence of sufficient data related to the research objectives. Also, in selecting the houses, an attempt was made to consider different scales of houses, from large-scale to small-scale in different parts of the historical area of the city. In terms of time, the studied samples are limited to the Qajar period. First, by examining the architectural systems and geometric proportions, three architectural systems, four, five, six and three geometric proportions √2, √3 and √4, were selected as the index geometric principles. Then, according to these principles, the map of the central courtyard of ten historical houses in Kashan was analyzed. The results of this study indicate that the entire yard is built with the previous design and follows the above architectural systems and geometric proportions. These systems and proportions can be seen in part and in general in the plans and wall constructions around the yard. Of course, this does not mean that all houses have all these six architectural systems and geometric proportions, but in some houses, some of these proportions and architectural systems have not been used. Architectural systems four and six with a frequency of 15 and proportion √3 with a frequency of 9 have been the most used and the courtyard of the Abbasid house with 14 architectural systems and geometric proportions is the richest house in terms of applying geometric principles.

Traditional house yards in the desert cities of Iran play an important role in balancing and subtilizing the house's air. Its overall composition varies somewhat across Iran due to climatic and cultural reasons. Esfahan central courtyard houses also have a special combination. The main purpose of this paper is to investigate the process of central courtyard airflow (natural ventilation), influenced by the prevailing wind in late Qajar period houses in Isfahan (statistical population of research) and Labaf House as a random sample. The present study is an interdisciplinary research and uses a mixed method to conduct the research. In the first step (after selecting Labaf's house as a case study), using an empirical strategy, the independent variables were identified, and the dependent variables (velocity and direction of airflow) were measured by digital devices and smoke tests. The data were then analyzed using a simulation strategy. The simulations were performed by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) using Gambit and Fluent software. The results showed that in the statistical field the indoor air flow in the observer plane is opposite to the outside wind direction and in the northern third position (in the south north axis of the yard), an irregular eddy flow occurs and air is propagated to all locations of house, from this point.

The central courtyard is one of the ancient and valuable models of Iranian climatic architecture and as a physical element in organizing the structure of the space of traditional houses has responded to various dimensions of biological, social and cultural needs. The geometry of the central courtyard (shape and proportions) as the main design feature always affects the performance of the amount of radiated energy absorbed, suitable thermal comfort conditions, and the pattern of air flow movement. Therefore, the present study has evaluated the relationship between yard proportions and airflow pattern in traditional Shushtar houses. In order to achieve more accurate findings in the existing buildings, Nanaee, Rezvan, Aminzadeh, and Baghal houses were selected as the studied samples in a historical period, with minimal intervention in their spatial structure. The research method of this research is a hybrid method due to its interdisciplinary nature. Firstly, the initial observations, using the experimental strategy, the independent variables (shape, proportions) of the yards are identified and the dependent variables (wind flow velocity) have been measured by using digital anemometer device. Secondly, Anemometers are measured. In order to study the data more accurately, the simulation of this research is performed by CFD computational fluid dynamics method by using Design Modeler and Fluent software. Finally, the air flow inside the yards is analyzed. The results show that houses with four-sided construction yards with length to widths of 1.08 and 1.2 have the most favorable air flow distribution conditions and three-sided construction yards with lengths of 1.01 and 1.13 width in terms of uniform air flow distribution suffer .They enjoy unfavorable conditions in the hot seasons of the year in Shushtar. Changes in the proportions and geometric pattern of the yards have affected the air quality conditions and thermal comfort conditions of the residents.

Environmental issues and energy crisis are among the problems of contemporary man for which the local architecture in hot and arid areas in Iran achieved some wise solutions. This kind of architecture has been successful in harmonizing the environment, utilization the natural sources, and confronting hard climate conditions. Sustainable architecture of this area could obtain impressing success in thermal balancing with the help of suitable materials and knowledge of the local architects. That is why recognition the patterns of this architecture can be useful for designing modern houses. This research studies design standards of central courtyard and summer hall in Yazd Qajar housesin the hot and arid areas of Iran. The statistical population of this study contains some traditional houses in Qajar era because most of these kinds of buildings have been built in this period of time. The correlation method has been used for finding the relations between different spaces and geometric patterns. Deducing and analyzing the results have been by comparison and induction. After field studies and collecting information, the measured dimensions of the central courtyards and summer halls have been presented in different charts and the design standards and structural patterns have been surveyed. On the other hand, the proportions and spatial relations of various areas have been investigated. According to the aim of this research, this is a functional survey with the quantitive-qualitative method. As the conclusion, the design standards and the correct proportions of the central courtyards and summer halls in hot and arid areas in Iran have been resulted.

There are modest differences between the central courtyard of buildings in hot and dry regions with similar buildings in hot and humid areas. The central courtyard houses in Yazd are very introverted and have very little contact with the outside. The central courtyard houses in hot and humid areas are semi-introverted and partially have a physical and visual connection with the outside through the openings and porches. This paper aims to conduct a comparative comparison of courtyard structural pattern in Yazd and Dezful, to detect the differences and similarities of the courtyard in various cities of Iran with two different climates. In the both climate, to achieve a more accurate result, “courtyard in the middle “ is selected as the position of the courtyard toward the house. The main research questions are “how is the structure of courtyard in Dezful and Yazd Qajari houses? What are the effects of climate requirements on the difference and similarity of structure of “courtyard in the middle” in the both mentioned cities?”. The descriptive and comparative methods were used in this study by selecting ten case study from both cities. To achieve this purpose, formic analysis, proportions of the courtyard (length to width), depth of courtyard, the angle of human vision, altitudinal pattern, the ratio of indoor to outdoor, area of greenness and water, materials and colors of courtyard wall are investigated comparatively and analytically. The method of analysis is formic and data collection tools include sketch, field observations, drawing tables, and analytic charts. The result of this study indicates that although courtyard is an important element and play a regulatory role in both Yazd and Dezful houses, many structural differences in the courtyard of the house can be seen. In other words, courtyard in the middle of the building in two different cities and climate has a different structure, which the details of the differences are expressed in the context of the study. The results show that however locating the courtyard in the middle can be similar for both hot-dry and hot-humid climate, but considering the structural differences of the courtyard in this both climates are inevitable and absolutely necessary.

Some experts believe that today’s Iranian architecture is not in the way of the traditional architecture. Reviewing history books and magazines shows that heritage of traditional Iranian architecture has been neglected since Qajar era. Therefore establishing a link between the present and the past is considered an important issue of Iranian contemporary architecture and it has been years that “Iranian identity in architecture” and “an architecture that is catered to Iranians’ preferences” have become critical challenges of many Iranian architects. In contemporary era, many architectural scholars recognize the establishment of a connection to the past as a way of transforming the current undesirable status of architecture, asserting that Iranian traditional architecture has implicit and explicit principles that can be realized at any time. Therefore, after when the negative aspects of this neglect were revealed, several architects began to restore the heritage in their architectural pieces and many considerable works have been created. Also in theory many scholars have thought about this issue and many meetings have been held in this topic.
In the last decades, some researches have been done with the aim of finding the contemporary architectural pieces and buildings that have tried to follow the traditional rules and criteria of Iranian architecture. This research studies some of the contemporary residential buildings in Tehran, which are designed by following this course- with the aim of identifying design approaches. Researchers referred to scholars of today architecture and experts – academicals or professional - for selecting precedents of this typology. Finally, four projects out of thirty are analyzed by using innate critique and “understanding the architecture through itself”; Because understanding the relationship between the past and the present established in architectural projects can only gained through contemplation on the works themselves.
After analyzing the projects, architectural approaches in the way of creating a connection to the past, are explained. The conclusion includes acknowledgement of contemporary architects’ attempts in order to establish a connection between the present and the traditional architecture; illustrating their success and failures.
In the end, the architectural approaches in these four houses are categorized in two main groups: Overall approaches and detailed approaches. The results show that using brick and stucco as well as the composition of volumes and masses has helped in creating an Iranian and familiar appearance. Also creating traditional spaces such as vestibule and corridor is another approach. Eventually the central courtyard – as one of the most important approaches- is defined and the results of such a decision in these cases will be assessed. It can be concluded that maybe having a central courtyard in the contemporary residential buildings is not compatible with today’s lifestyle.
This article refutes that the judgments made can be extended to any architectural projects of this typology, but the results of this research can be hypotheses for future detailed researches in this area and within the limits of contemporary architecture in Iran and countries that face similar problems - especially in the area of residential buildings.

Courtyard form is a very ancient element of a building structure in Iran and has been in place in Iranian houses for ages. A look at the plan of old houses in Iran as well as other countries in the region show that the structure of buildings are formed around the yard with several strategies. Solar radiation entering the courtyard space is received by different surfaces and will affect the thermal conditions of the buildings. The amount of received radiation generally depends on several factors including climatic conditions, location, orientation, the surrounding environment, proportion, the time during the year and the form of the courtyard. The absorbed solar radiation will increase the surface temperatures and consequently the temperature of the adjacent zones will be affected. This effect on thermal conditions in the courtyard space is reflected on the thermal behavior of the surrounding spaces. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure an optimum amount of shadow and irradiation in the courtyard space for an efficient courtyard performance through the year. It is evident that this can be achieved through properly configuring and proportioning the courtyard’s form and surfaces. Using an improper pattern not only will cause poor courtyard performance but will also increase the cooling and heating loads of the building because of the existence of too much shadow when solar radiation is needed or receiving plenty of irradiation when it is not desirable. The courtyard building is suitable for use and enjoyable if special arrangements are made in the design of the building. This includes the internal envelope’s finishing and materials, as well as the proportions of the physical parameters of the courtyard form, which are the most important element and the focus of the present study. Dezful is one of the cities of Khuzestan province in southwestern Iran which is located on latitude 32° 22' north and 48° 24' east. This city has severe summer climate conditions and on some days the temperature reaches 52 degree centigrade. In traditional buildings of Dezful, different passive design strategies have been used to control climate conditions and obtain thermal comfort inside the building. One of these strategies is creating a micro climate condition by using courtyards as a design pattern. For the present study, 15 cases of the courtyards in traditional buildings of Dezful have been selected. Generally, when more solar radiation is received in building, solar heat gain would be greater. Since solar radiation is the only thermal factor considered in this study, cooling loads for building is referred to the variation in the obtained solar radiation. Two different indices have been used to classify cases. These indices have been introduced as N1 (ratio of width to length of the courtyard) which defines elongation of form and N (ratio of length to height of courtyard) which shows the depth of form. From each classification, one case is selected and used for this study. The investigated cases have been modeled using three-dimensional simulation by Townscope software. An image processing is used to calculate the amount of shadows in different proportions on courtyard surface levels by Imagej software. The amounts of shadows have been measured in different months of the year on vertical and horizontal surfaces. Generally, in summer, the solar radiation received by horizontal surfaces is more than that obtained when the surface is vertical. Therefore, shadows on vertical and horizontal surfaces ave been measured separately. The total amount of shadows of each sample has been compared in the research with the climate requirement table of Dezful and the best sample regarding the needed periods for irradiation and shadow have been introduced. The optimum ratios of a courtyard building are defined as that which ensures minimum energy requirement throughout the year to achieve comfort in the building. Results show that courtyards with length to width ratio of 1 to 1.4 (near to square form) and height to length ratio of 1.1 to 1.2 had the most proper shade on different courtyard surfaces. Results also showed that for the purpose of reducing the cooling load in summer, deep and square shape courtyard forms were the most preferable. The self-shading of the courtyard building acts to reduce the need for cooling by an average of about 4%. By using this proportion, the amount of shadow on the courtyard will be optimized. This will accordingly result in reducing the temperature of the walls – what would help the cooling load in summer and also maintain warmth in winter. Courtyards with suggested proportion in buildings make great advantages for thermal condition of building. However, it must be mentioned that this passive strategy is not enough for achieving thermal comfort in building. Rather, a series of other strategies must be used to create more favorable thermal condition. They include thermal mass, proper insulation, good orientation and ventilation.