ceramics

the issue of forgery is of great importance in studying the authenticity of artistic and historical objects in the field of cultural artifacts. Ceramic, has been one of the most important human achievements that has subjected to various forms of forgery throughout history. Determining the authenticity of ceramic works requires understanding the multi-faceted nature of the material composition, construction methods, and decoration of the objects, as well as recognizing different types of forgery. Evaluating forgery in ceramic objects requires an assessment of the artistic-historical and aesthetic aspects of the crafted object, the authenticity of the manufacturing technology and production component, and the authenticity of subsequent interventions and additions. Therefore, determining authenticity in the face of forgery requires a specialized perspective and approach towards suspicious objects. This article aims to explore the various types of forgery in ceramics and examine the typology and methods of forgery in historical and cultural ceramics of Iran. The results, regardless of the historical context of forgery, indicate the development of forgery in ceramic objects during recent centuries and its presence in the antique market and the conservation of historical artifacts.

Ceramics and the ceramics industry have undergone numerous changes since the emergence of tool-making humans on Earth. These changes have led to the development of various types of ceramics, differing in shape, design, nomenclature, size, preparation and Making methods. These are primarily found in archaeological excavations, and their conservation and restoration can be more accurately performed by understanding and identifying their types and varieties. Ceramics are classified into different types based on their manufacturing technique, firing temperature, the clay used, and the additives used in the clay body. These classifications can sometimes be quite scattered. For instance, based on firing temperature, they can be divided into four categories: stoneware, earthenware, bone China, and porcelain. Based on manufacturing methods, they can be classified into hand-built, slab-built, wheel-thrown, molded, and pressed. The aim of this research is to introduce the most important types of ceramics and their characteristics, including firing temperature, manufacturing technique, and other structural properties and materials used in the body. To achieve this goal, this study will explain some of the terminology used in ceramics and classify ceramics based on firing temperature, manufacturing method, and the type of clay that constitutes their clay body.

Among the methods and techniques used in decorating pottery wares, luster-glaze was one of the most beautiful and magnificent ones. In the 6th and 7th AH/ AD 12th and 13th centuries, Kashan was known as a main center for the production of luster-glazed pottery. The magnificent works produced in this city are now preserved in many museums and collections. Examining the well-known signed works of Kashan ceramists in these centuries, we come across a series of family relationships that indicate the transmission of this art from one generation to the next. Famous families and artists who had been active in the field of Kashan luster-glaze technique would be mentioned as follows: the families of Abu-Tāhir, Abu-Zaid and Al-Husseini, about whom many scholars and researchers have written much. One of the artists who had signed his works in the luster-glaze technique of Kashan was Mohammad ibn Abi Al-Hassan al-Maqri, with six signed works known so far. The purpose of this study is to introduce and identify the features of Al-Maqri’s works as an independent skilfull ceramist. The results of the research show that Al-Maqri was a ceramist in that time and it is wrong to attribute other titles to him such a “patron” of arts. He has also been one of the most unique artists of his time due to his special style in combining mina’i and luster-glaze techniques. This research is based on a descriptive-analytical methodology and has been done by using library sources and documents.

Persian arts, during its ups and downs and glory, have never been meaningless and non-ideological. One of the expressions of this genuineness can be obviously seen in Persian rich literature, which has always been a plenteous resource for artists and craftsmen’s inspirations, especially in the Islamic era. Potters and ceramists also were not exceptions. They too, during the Seljuk period, which is said to be the most developing and prolific period of ceramics and pottery of Iran, have used the literature narrations and contexts. In this case, the effect and influence of the “Firdausi’s Shahnama” is more obvious and eye caching among the other resources known till that period. This fact reveals and explains the reality that the contents of this national and original work of art, was not only of such a supreme place in the society of that period of time but also was commonly used as a reference of inspirations for artists and specially painters. From the subject point of view, literature influence on ceramics of this period can be categorized in two main sections; First, love and sentimental subjects and second, epical and historical or mythical subjects. For the first part we can mention narrations like the stories of Bijan and Manija, khosrou and Shirin, Bahram Gur and Azada and Bahram Gur and Sapinud and from the second part, stories of Faridun and Zahhak, Faridun and his three sons, and Iranians leaving the fortress of Farud can be mentioned which have surveyed in this essay. Since few manuscripts of this period have survived from the invasion of Mongols, study and research of these paintings on the ceramics are of the utmost importance. Thus recognition of Persian painting process in this specific historical period owes mostly to these valuable remaining of ceramics and tiles of this period.

Blue and white ceramics is one of the most important and abundant types of glazed ceramics in the Islamic world, particularly during the late Islamic period. There are some questions regarding this ceramics which have not been answered yet; for instance, where and when was such kind of ceramics first produced? According to archaeological evidence, Iran produced such kind of ceramics from at least early Islamic time. Therefore, the current study aims to explore this type of ceramics in Iran based on published resources as well as evidence uncovered through archaeological excavations. The study shows that in Iran, from the sixth century onwards, different types of blue and white ceramics in numerous centers and with different methods have been produced. Although in the span of first to fifth centuries (A.H) numerous pieces of blue and white ceramics in centers such as Nishapur and Susa have been identified, the evidence showing their local production is absent and most results are based on scientific experiments