hot

Problem statement: 

In hot and arid regions such as Kerman, vernacular architectural design plays a crucial role in ensuring optimal thermal conditions and long-term comfort for residents amid increasing temperature fluctuations. Given this significance, assessing the impact of enclosed and semi-open spaces in Kerman’s traditional buildings from the perspectives of thermal environment and adaptive thermal behavior is of high importance.

This study aims to comprehensively examine the influence of enclosed and semi-open spaces in Kerman’s vernacular buildings on thermal environment, thermal adaptation behaviors, and residents’ thermal responses in a hot and arid climate.

Utilizing advanced statistical methods, this research gathered and analyzed data from a year-long field study. The assessments included environmental measurements in both enclosed and semi-open spaces and the determination of thermal comfort indices based on existing standards.

Findings indicate a significant difference in the thermal environments of enclosed and semi-open spaces, leading to varied thermal comfort conditions at different times of the day. Furthermore, residents’ thermal adaptation behaviors are closely linked to the spatial configuration of buildings. Notable findings include differences in neutral temperature, acceptable temperature (80% satisfaction), and preferred temperature, measured at 1.1°C and 0.9°C (neutral temperature), 2.2°C and 2.7°C (acceptable temperature), and 1.6°C (preferred temperature) during transitional seasons and summer, respectively. The results confirm that the thermal diversity present in Kerman’s vernacular buildings significantly impacts adaptive thermal behaviors and residents’ comfort levels. The smart design of enclosed and semi-open spaces, by offering distinct thermal conditions, enhances thermal adaptation and improves overall comfort, emphasizing the critical role of vernacular architecture in adapting to hot and arid climates.

Determining the range of thermal comfort in the outdoor space is complicated, and since the presence of thermal comfort helps more people to be in the outdoor space, it is important. In the current research, it has been tried to determine the thermal comfort limit of people in the outdoor space of traditional and restored buildings in the hot and dry climate of Yazd city. For this purpose, a field monitoring was carried out in the hot season of the five central courtyards of the Yazd faculty of Art and Architecture as buildings that have been changed from residential to educational use, which includes the measurement of climatic information at the same time as the completion of 389 thermal comfort questionnaires by the students of the faculty; Then, with the help of Ray Man and SPSS software, the obtained information was analyzed and after checking the linear regression charts, the range of thermal comfort for people in the central courtyards of the faculty as a microclimate in the hot and dry area of ​​Yazd city between the range of 16.5-28 degrees Celsius based on the Physiologically Equivalent Temperature index (PET) was obtained. Due to the fact that the combination of climatic and geographical factors for each specific region will lead to a different understanding of the thermal comfort conditions for the people of that community, this comfort range is different from the comfort ranges in other regions that have been determined in numerous researches. From the comparison of the studied yards, it was found that the more the yard has a height-to-width ratio and the more enclosed it is, the more shade it will receive and, finally,more thermal comfort during the day and night for the hot days of the year.

The hot and dry climate of central Iran is home to historic farmsteads from the early centuries of Islam up to the 13th century. In the course of recent studies, 42 types of farmsteads have been identified and documented around cities such as Qom, Isfahan, Kashan and Yazd. These farmsteads enjoy unique physical and functional capabilities and have formed a part of Iran's livelihood system and agricultural heritage. The moot point of the research is the lack of research about the shape characteristics and diverse forms of historical farmsteads. The research aims to get a deeper understanding of the historic farmsteads in the hot and dry climate of Iran, and to this end, two questions have been raised about the shape-forming elements and their classification.According to the findings, each farmstead has three zones on the scale of the zoning system: physical, agricultural, and customary. In terms of the distribution pattern and coexistence of forming elements, there are two patterns: linear and centralized, and in the scale of the variety of forming elements, farmsteads are divided into two categories: small and great. Accordingly, historical residential farmsteads in Iran can be divided into two ways: a) Agricultural castles with a centralized pattern and b) Agricultural complexes with a linear pattern. Most of the farmsteads identified in this climate have the form of "agricultural complexes with a linear pattern" and are significantly related to the historical period of their formation.

What has been effective in saving energy consumption in the old structures of Iranian cities is the observance of climatic principles in traditional architecture and the use of local materials in the region. In Iran, more than 40% of energy consumption is related to residential buildings. On the other hand, studies in the field of climate solutions to reduce energy consumption in traditional Iranian buildings are limited, among the studies that have been conducted in this field, we can mention the article "Traditional Architecture Values ​​of Semnan City in Optimizing Energy Consumption" written by Amir Hossein Salar, which describes the theoretical expression of architecture. Traditional has paid.In today's architecture, it is tried to ensure that the building can meet the thermal needs of the residents with minimal energy consumption, according to its design patterns. Meanwhile, traditional and native buildings in different climates of Iran are very suitable examples for examining the design patterns used in them. In this regard, this article aims to investigate the role of the orientation of the central courtyards of traditional houses in the hot and humid climate of Iran, from the point of view of optimizing the building's energy consumption and also creating thermal comfort for the residents. Hormozgan province is one of the hot and humid regions of Iran. In general, the weather of this province is influenced by desert and semi-desert weather. The weather of the coastal strip is very hot and humid in summers, but the temperature in this area does not exceed 52 degrees Celsius.The research process has been such that firstly, the site and the climate of the region, as well as the desired scenarios for the pattern of the central courtyards in the desired context, have been investigated and recognized. Then, with the help of simulation in Design Builder software, the orientation pattern of the central courtyards has been analyzed in line with the research objectives. Finally, the desired results are presented in terms of energy consumption and thermal comfort of users.In this regard, library studies, water and meteorological information and computer simulation with the help of Design Builder software have been used. Finally, the research results have shown; The use of the pattern of central courtyards in a rectangular shape with a width to length ratio of one half with an east-west orientation has been able to reduce energy consumption in the building by about 12%. Also, effective factors in thermal comfort such as; The air temperature and speed should set the radiation temperature acceptable at the threshold of the comfort of the users, and in a way, the conditions for creating the thermal comfort of the users in the space will be provided and the amount of energy consumption of the building will be reduced. Finally, it can be said that; The studies conducted show that there has not been much study on the influence of the orientation of central courtyards in residential buildings, especially in the hot and humid climate of Iran, using computer simulation. Also, the use of computer simulation to achieve more authentic and realistic results can be very useful; Therefore, in this article, the pattern of central courtyards in traditional houses in hot and humid climates has been investigated in terms of energy consumption and thermal comfort with the help of computer simulation and field studies to achieve the optimal pattern of central courtyards in this climate. The field studies conducted in the context of Dezful city show that in the traditional context of this climate, the pattern of the central courtyard has responded well to the needs of the residents. Therefore, this architectural element can be used well in new contexts and newly built houses, in order to meet the thermal needs of residents and reduce energy consumption costs. Therefore, this article seeks to investigate the orientation in the pattern of the central courtyards of this climate and provide the optimal pattern for the purposes of the research. For this reason, it seems that such a research is necessary and necessary.It also provided the conditions for achieving thermal comfort for the users to a large extent. In fact, it can be seen that by using traditional architectural elements and solutions in the body of today's buildings, it is possible to advance buildings in the direction of reducing energy consumption. Central courtyards in the heart of traditional buildings can be well used as one of these elements and solutions for the aforementioned goals and have an effective role in architecture.

The Pavilion, as the main built element in the Persian garden, is considered the only extroverted residential space in Iranian architecture. The main reason for its extroversion can be found in the possibility of viewing the garden from all its fronts, as well as its location in the microclimate of the garden as a closed ecosystem. In many Persian gardens in hot and arid regions, pavilions were used as the only extroverted residential spaces, often for temporary accommodation or for holding ceremonies. Considering the importance of the pavilion in the Persian garden, the present research aims to explain the climatic factors that are effective in the creation of pavilions in Persian gardens located in hot and arid climates and to investigate the climatic parameters of pavilions design. The selected pavilions are Chehelsotoun, Dolatabad, and Shazdeh, as three valuable examples of gardens and pavilions built from the Safavid era to the Qajar era, which is considered as an important period in Persian gardening. The research method of this paper is qualitative, with a descriptive-analytical approach based on library research. while introducing the physical characteristics, elements and spaces that make up pavilions in Persian gardens and compiling climate design strategies in hot and arid regions, this study recognizes these criteria in selected pavilions using a comparative and analytical method. By analyzing and evaluating the climate design parameters in the selected pavilions, different passive cooling strategies are identified in historic gardens' pavilions in arid areas of Iran.

Problem statement: 

The use of the central courtyard in different regions of Iran had become a tradition in the past architecture of Iran. As ventilation is of great importance in a hot and humid climate, the structure of the central courtyard in the building can play an effective role in this matter. However, no research has been done on the central courtyard’s proportions and its role in improving ventilation in the surrounding spaces needs more investigation.

This research attempts to investigate the role of proportions and elongation of the central courtyard in creating ventilation in the surrounding spaces in hot and humid climates.

For this purpose, one of the most important ventilation indicators, including wind speed, was measured in a field (experimentally) in one of the traditional houses with a central courtyard pattern. These results are used as a base index for the analysis of other samples. In the next step, 10 samples were extracted based on the proportions and length of the yard, all of which were simulated under the same climatic conditions in the computational fluid dynamics software environment, and finally, the results were presented in the form of different outputs such as wind speed, air age, air flow rate and finally ventilation efficiency was measured. The independent variable in this research is the horizontal proportions of the central courtyard and the dependent variable is the efficiency of ventilation in the space available in the ax of the central courtyard.

The results of the research showed that in the central courtyard buildings, with the increase of the courtyard extension along the external airflow of the building, the ventilation efficiency increases significantly.

The conscious use of plants in the design of buildings is one of the low-cost solutions for optimization that is expanding. Therefore, as one of the most effective foundations and concepts of sustainable development in architecture, the vertical greenery system plays a significant role in reducing energy consumption. In this study, considering the structural diversity of the vertical greenery system, the effect of the green façade with six types of climbing plants on the thermal performance of the conventional residential building in Isfahan province has been investigated. For this evaluation, the parameters such as plant leaf area index (LAI), distance between plant and wall (zero, five, ten, fifteen and twenty cm), thermal conductivity coefficient and plant placement height (ground floor, second and fourth floor) have been measured. At first, by testing selected climbing plants (six species), the leaf area index was collected with a photographic camera and Photoshop software, and the thermal conductivity coefficient was collected with an infrared thermometer and the Lux-Lightmeter program. Then, with the data obtained from the coefficient of thermal conductivity, simulation was done in Design-Builder software to determine the effect of the green façade in the summer and winter solstice on the thermal performance of the building. After classification and data analysis, Lonicera Japonica plant with leaf area index of 10, thermal conductivity coefficient 0.21 w/m2.k and air layer of 20 cm on the ground floor was selected as the optimal condition. Other findings include the direct relationship between the leaf area index and the thermal performance of the building and the inverse relationship between the air layer between the green façade and the external wall. Also, the height component of the plant in the floors compared to the ground floor reduces the penetration of heat into the indoor environment.

The hot and humid region of Iran experiences extremely hot summers with high humidity, making it one of the most challenging climates globally. Analyzing the features of vernacular houses in these areas can offer valuable insights for modern housing design. One of the key challenges researchers encounter in architectural typology studies is selecting appropriate case studies. Bandar Kong, a coastal city along the Persian Gulf, features traditional houses with four main components: windcatchers, Sabat (shaded walkways), main rooms (living areas), and yards, along with non-living spaces. Understanding the organization of these elements can help develop a typology of vernacular houses in Bandar Kong.

One of the key applications of machine learning methods recently employed in architectural research is the measurement of similarity in architectural images. Categorizing and describing architectural features within each category is essential for identifying architectural types. Previous studies have utilized cosine similarity for measuring the similarity of architectural plans. Cosine similarity measurement criterion is particularly effective for evaluating sparse vectors and is commonly used in positive spaces with a range of [0,1]. Due to the diverse nature of architectural data, this method has proven effective for evaluating plan image similarities. The aim of this research is to apply machine learning techniques to select case studies and cluster the houses of Bandar Kong based on the shape and arrangement of windcatchers, sabat, courtyards, and living spaces. For this, Anaconda version 3.9 and Jupiter 6.4.5 were utilized. The cosine distance algorithm was employed to measure similarity in terms of shape and spatial relationships. The hierarchical algorithm, using the average linkage method, was used to extract and categorize the features of each plan.

According to the analysis, the architectural plans of Bandar Kong houses can be divided in 3 different clusters. Scatter diagrams of each cluster can shows characteristics of each cluster. According to the scatter diagram, the length, width, and height consistently fall within the ranges of 2.5-3.5 meters for length and width, and 9-9.5 meters for height. By analyzing the scatter diagram of the characteristics of each cluster, the following results have been extracted. In the first cluster, the windcatcher is located in the east, and the sabbat or courtyard is located on the west side of it. The main rooms are mostly located on the north side and the service spaces are located on the east and west sides. In the second cluster, the windcatcher is centrally placed on the west side of the house. Here, the plan layout tends to extend along a north-south axis, with living rooms positioned on both the west and east sides. In the third cluster, the windcatcher is located on the west side of the plan. In this category, the extension of the plans is mostly east-west. The northern side of the windcatcher typically features the Gatieh room, and in most plans in this group, the wind room connects to either the northern room or the Gatieh. According to the similarity measurement, the plans of Younesi, Golbat and Karchi houses have the highest shape similarity and spatial relationships with other plans.

Nowadays, with the growing volume of data and the complexity of data analysis, software solutions are increasingly used across various fields, including architecture, to minimize errors. One major challenge in architectural research is the classification and selection of case studies for analyzing architectural types. In this study, after evaluating the shape similarity and spatial relationships of architectural plans, the Younesi, Karchi, and Golbat houses were selected as case studies due to their highest similarity in both shape and spatial relations compared to other plans. Using a hierarchical classification method with average linkage, the plans were grouped into three main categories. The defining characteristics of each category were extracted from the charts and compared with the corresponding case study from each group. As a result, the Karchi house represents the first category, the Golbat house represents the second, and the Younesi house represents the third, with their respective features aligning closely with the extracted characteristics of each category.

The climatic design of a region contributes to its environmental comfort conditions. In regions with a special climate, this issue is of greater importance. Wind plays a very crucial role in the form of the city, the orientation and width of roads, the location of houses, and the type of housing in the region. In coastal areas, heat and humidity are two dominant climatic factors that are controlled by winds. Local people have tried to use the wind to balance the temperature. The ‘House of Fekri’ is one of the most prominent houses that has adopted the approach of using wind as a climatic element to achieve temperature comfort. In this house, various strategies have been used to create interaction between the wind and the spaces of the house. This study attempts to examine the impact of wind on the formation of wind-supported architecture and scrutinizes its application in Bandar Lengeh. The ‘House of Fekri’ has been investigated and analyzed. Studies and field observations show that in the vernacular architecture of Bandar Lenge, different strategies have been used to use winds in settlements, and the revival and updating of those strategies contribute to renewable energy in Bandar Lenge. This study employed field observation, library study, data interpretation, and intuitive reasoning to study the strategies used for applying wind-powered architecture in the ‘House of Fekri’ . The results of this research show that several basic components, such as geometry, level difference, definition of space based on a scale, and different applications, can be evaluated in the wind-powered architecture of the ‘House of Fekri’ . Climatic design aligned with the wind flow can be reflected in features such as the extroversion of external walls, introversion of internal spaces, changes in the shape and dimensions of the wind catcher and its compliance with the climate, the spaces placed in the direction of the wind, a level difference created in the house, and natural ventilation use.

Proportion is one of the significant design principles featured in Iranian architecture. Several factors are influential in applying a certain type of spatial proportions. Climate and ecology are the most important ones. Bushehr is one of the cities in the hot and humid climate in Iran and features historical houses which include a large variety of open and semi-open spaces. The general appearance of the mentioned spaces in the historical buildings shows that the proportions of these spaces apparently follow certain principles. Therefore, this research was conducted with the aim of studying the proportional and geometrical principles used in the open and semi-open spaces in the historical houses in Bushehr. The findings and the results of the research can be used by contemporary architects and designers. The research is organized in two parts: the theoretical foundations and the fieldworks. In the theoretical basis part, the archival method was used to introduce and examine the history and the functions of these spaces. In the fieldwork part, the direct observation was the main method. The study of existing building drawings and their adaptation to the numerical measurements using laser meter were the next steps. The findings obtained from the geometry and the extracted numbers and sizes show that the open and semi-open spaces of the historical houses in Bushehr do not follow the proportional principles which, conversely, are common in other regions of Iran. However, the open and semi-open spaces have similar proportional geometry in all cases. The courtyard spaces have a square geometry or close to it, with a high height to width ratio. The height to width ratio in the corridors, arcades and “Tarmehs” is large and about the number three, in order to create more depth for shading. The dominant geometry of semi-open spaces is elongated rectangle in shape, their height is high, and their proportions are close to the number four in order to accelerate the convection of the heat upwards.

Past architectures have undergone many tests in their physical structures and have reached stable combinations over the years. Among the climatic solutions of historical houses in interaction with nature, it has been harmonizing the form and the structure of architectural spaces. One of the main characteristics of native architecture in interaction with the natural environment is the components design , patterns and physical proportions based on environmental variables such as sunlight, seasons, etc.; In such a way that creating physical compatibility in historical houses with the natural environment, along with other considerations, guarantees less energy consumption and the benefit of environmental comfort. However, today to environmental problems, paying attention to climate-based characteristics has become more important; Therefore, it can provide specific standards in the process of modernizing and improving sustainability in future buildings. Meanwhile, the houses of the Safavid and Qajar era in Dezful city are valuable examples of architecture that have been well adapted to the special climatic conditions of Khuzestan. Based on this, in the current research, the identification of geometric patterns, proportionality and prevailing standards in the structures of the central courtyard, winter halls and seasonal rooms based on hot and humid climates is discussed. Also, the relationships of spaces are also studied based on physical characteristics; so that by comparing climatic criteria, a sustainable design pattern can be achieved based on structural patterns; Identified the most common spatial proportions in accordance with nature in this region; and used in accordance with today's needs.For this purpose, eleven residential buildings from the Safavid and Qajar eras were purposefully selected, which have gained significant prosperity in the city of Dezful. In the continuation of the investigation process of these houses, the data and information obtained from the study and field investigation were recorded in a table and with the help of calculation methods, logical reasoning of the data and their quantitative and qualitative analysis, a set of geometric proportions and spatial relationships were obtained. Finally, results were obtained that expressed the most common and practical dimensions, areas and geometric ratios and emphasized the relationship between spatial patterns and climatic and environmental data of hot and humid weather.

With a glance at the history of the earth, we can see that the natural world is always evolving. To adapt to the climatic conditions, living organisms have achieved creative features to ensure their survival. Also, nature preserves the creatures that are successful in this matter and removes other creatures. Therefore, by learning from natural species and imitating related achievements, solutions can be found to create comfortable conditions in human habitats. The aim of the upcoming research is to achieve a formal solution for the design of an emergency shelter in the hot and humid climate of Bandar Abbas city, in which natural ventilation can be carried out and create comfortable conditions. Achieving a suitable solution requires extensive study of appropriate biological species. Examining these samples and their form analysis for form design is an approach that is emphasized in the current research. In this regard, the simulation method has been used to check the success rate of natural ventilation in the forms. To check the climate data of Bandar Abbas city, Climate Consultant software was used, and to simulate natural ventilation, Any’s Fluent software was used. By simulating forms and analyzing them, the effect of form ideas on the natural ventilation of shelters can be seen. Finally, this conclusion can be expressed that with the inspiration of natural species related to the flow of fluids, forms with natural ventilation can be designed.

Natural ventilation is one of the most important factors in creating thermal comfort, and Wind-catcher, which are considered important and historical elements of Iranian architecture and are known as a static cooling system, provide air conditioning by means of renewable wind energy. Nowadays, due to the increase in environmental pollution and the importance of non-renewable energy, the role of natural ventilation in the building is important in terms of the compatibility of the building with the environment. The wind-catcher of Kerman city are an example of energy saving by buildings in a hot and dry climate, therefore, a detailed, quantitative and numerical study and understanding of the functioning and behavior pattern of wind-catcher can be an effective step in achieving climate-compatible design solutions. to help Assuming that in the spaces where natural ventilation is done by means of wind-catcher, a significant relationship can be found between the proportions and the shape of the space on the speed and performance of the wind flow, the present study investigates and compares the performance of the wind-catcher in the selected samples which in terms of The form, dimensions and proportions are different, so that the optimal form can be used in natural ventilation in contemporary architecture. The research method in this research is descriptive-analytical, which was firstly done by means of library sources and taking pictures, then taking pictures of the studied buildings and finally by means of CFD analysis by Design Builder software. The results of the analyzes show the difference in the speed and performance of the wind flow in the studied samples that are different in terms of form and proportions, and after performing the calculations, the most optimal form in terms of performance and behavior of the wind has been determined.

Architecture has always been a physical and spatial expression of social, cultural, climatic and economic conditions in the society. The architectural structure of the historical houses of the Qajar period has not followed the physical and psychological needs of the user depending on the background conditions in the same way and extent. Components such as house orientation, composition, decorations, hierarchy, function, scale, light and illumination are among the indicators that have been influenced by various factors and have shaped the form of architecture. This article seeks to analyze the effectiveness of the physical and spatial configuration components of historical houses of the Qajar period from culture and climate factors through a comparative comparison in two climates with a common feature including the hot and dry and hot and humid climates of Iran. The research method in this article is descriptive and analytical, and the collection of materials was done by library method and field observation. In the process of analyzing the subject of the research and in order to index the factors affecting the physical and spatial components, four Qajar houses with two different forms including the central courtyard and block forms were selected in the key cities of the mentioned climates to compare the contrasting forms in one climate and the same forms in different climates, the manner of effectiveness of the physical and spatial components of different factors should be determined. The results of the research indicate that in hot and dry climates, the cultural factor has the greatest impact on the scale of the house and the performance of the spaces, and the materials, composition, facade and decorations are most influenced by the climate, while in the hot and humid region, the components of hierarchy, facade and decorations, lighting are more influenced by culture and climate has the greatest impact on house form, orientation, materials and performance.