pottery

Samani pottery, which is attributed to the 3rd and 4th centuries of Hijri, has many drawing similarities with Sasanian works. The way of painting the faces and parts of the figures, the composition of some significant works, and several other decorative features, according to art history researchers, make Nishapur pottery a logical sequence of Sasanian art in the first centuries of Islam. When the conceptual reading of motifs becomes a function of this statement, the generalizability of the general theory of "the influence of Islamic art from Sasanian art" is distorted by some works. By ignoring the contribution of Sasanian art in the analysis of motifs, some other works are excluded from the circle of theoretical validation. Wilkinson's careful attention to the artistic legacy of pre-Islamic Iran for Samani pottery was gradually approved by the researchers after him, and the research assumptions were based on this theoretical foundation. The main criticism of this range of research was ignoring the centuries-old ideological developments of Muslim and even non-Muslim Iranians, which appeared in the Iranian cultural return movement in the form of a plurality of Islamic sects and superstitions. It can be said that this was a research deviation from the followers of Wilkinson's theory that the Sasanian influence was emphasized as if it made Nishapur pottery a part of the artistic achievement of the Sasanian era in the post-Sasanian era. With the explanation that all figures and animals were considered symbols with Sassanid meanings and thus, a significant part of the works could not be interpreted with this theory. On the other hand, recently, various content readings of the role have been presented by some other researchers who ignored the theory of the influence of Sasanian art and turned to different phenomenological or historical interpretations. A serious criticism of such studies is the non-generalizability of theories to the variety of animal and physical compositions. In such a way that each interpretation can finally cover the works with visual characteristics and composition similar to its case example. In this research gap, establishing a theory that can correct the established theory and cover the themes of all the works is the main goal of the research. The operational plan of the research is as follows: First, various data, including visual, audio, and citation data, are collected and categorized, and after coding, categorization, and extracting central concepts. The importance, necessity, and purpose of this article explain the correction of the above theory. The main question of the research is what theory can be proposed about the painted pottery of Samani Nishapur, which can be more generalizable than the existing theories. The research method is descriptive-historical, and data-based or contextual methods. The modification and establishment of the theory is one of the most challenging research topics. Where the theory works but its generalizability is doubtful, formal and conceptual generalizability can be separated from each other. It is assumed that Wilkinson's theory has a good generalization ability at the form level; However, it does not work comprehensively at the level of content and is not responsive to interpretative variations. All the available samples (online and museum) were listed under the title of "patterned pea pottery". The searchable samples, which are 174 healthy and almost healthy painted pea potteries, are considered to be the product of a common content platform. In explaining the tools and methods of data collection, the relative balance of data in historical subjects seems to be heavier in favor of the left documents and texts. In the selection of the interviewees, in addition to the researchers, attention was paid to the museum-keepers and their oral experiences in direct encounters with the works. Nishapur patterned pottery can be classified into four groups from the visual point of view and the combination of patterns. These categories are: 1- Figures on horseback 2- Standing/sitting figures (single, double, and triple or more) 3- Combinations of animals 4- Mixed human and animal creatures. Conceptual categories and spectrums that have been extracted through the coding of the interviews refer to various aspects of Nishapur's patterned pottery. Some categories have a critical and pathological look at the methods used in the existing research, which is the result of the concerns of the authors and researchers. The only distinguishing categories in terms of content were the possibility of the existence of constellations and astronomy, as well as the discussion of national religious festivals and holidays, which were not mentioned in any of the conversations. The influence of Sassanid art, the influences of East/Sogdian art, popular art, the narrative nature of the role, the factor of religion, constellations and astronomy, and the cultural movement of Iranians; The most important conceptual and content categories are extracted from the research data. The most important question, the answer of which will change the direction of content research is, in what tangible and objective way did the Iranians shape this renaissance? The answer in literature is Shahnameh; in politics, it is a desire for independence from the caliphate, and in the depiction of Nishapur's engraved pottery? Is it possible that there has been a methodological problem? This sameness in the generality of culture, without paying attention to contemporary and effective factors such as religion and new religion, can reach such an interpretation. Nevertheless, it is necessary to answer this question once again: based on the thought system of Iranians who lived three or four centuries after the emigration of the Prophet of Islam, the way to overcome Arab rule and make Iranian rulers dominant again - not necessarily Sassanid - what was it? This return and the so-called cultural, political, social, and all-round "regression" have gone through which reliable path in the real world? It seems that the central phenomenon can be discovered from this question and the answer we give to it, and the basic theory of the research depends on finding its exact answer.In this way, wanting to return - or in other words, wanting to see the future - could only be achieved and become objective through a concrete path, which could not happen except by resorting to apocalyptic beliefs. Because the vindictive literature of the insurgents and the astronomical and astronomical superstitions of that period is largely defined by the apocalypse. It should be known that it is difficult to find logical relationships between the role and its contemporary history, in the situation where the painting avoids any kind of narrative. Perhaps this is the factor that encourages the commentators to do iconological interpretations and mention general reasons and factors such as the cultural movement of Iranians and then go into iconography and find the visual relationships between the text and the role. The set of these risks causes us to overcome such a cognitive error, to draw a theoretical sphere of inevitable or probable contents. It can be said that one of the results of this research was the recording and collection of Nishapur engraved pottery images and the presentation of the formal typology of the works. Collecting the images of all the works - both fake and original - has been since previously, in the existing research - if available - the frequency and specific number of Nishapur engraved pea pottery has not been stated. The numbers mentioned in this treatise are not certain. It should be known that any attempt to achieve a single meaning and content for numerous monologues ultimately requires illogical generalizations and leads to failure. If we look at the shape effects in Nishapur pottery with a critical eye, the avoidance of imitation and uncreative patterning by the Nishapur artist seems clear and certain. No clear narrative in the official literary and historical texts that connects the image and the text of the documents was found in any research work. There is only a series of mostly superstitious sub-narratives, which, according to the author, can be given more attention and thought to reread the motifs. The apocalyptic content of the return of Abu Muslim or any other savior was suggested for motifs in the author's previous articles. That is for works in which birds are most similar to pigeons and horned animals are most similar to goats. This analysis is based on a series of superstitious sub-narratives. The importance of these narratives is due to their connection with astronomical constellations and the issue of the cultural return movement of Iranians, and since it is repeated in at least 3 important texts, it makes the author give it an impact factor again. Of course, there are flaws that damage and weaken the theory, and as a result, it is necessary to promote an idealistic hero without direct reference to historical and concrete figures such as Abu Muslim. The time frame of two centuries considered for the history of the production of works makes it difficult to find the main sources of content. Unless the widespread events during this period are emphasized. In this respect, apocalyptic beliefs have superiority in spatial temporal, and even ethnic scope. The results of the research show that in the variety of topics and conceptual categories of motifs, drawing a theoretical sphere of the concept of the end of time can be the most comprehensive answer to the question of the existence of Neishabur's works in the third and fourth centuries of Hijri.

With the spread of Islam in the Middle Ages and Iran’s strategic geographic position, interregional communications between Iran and other countries, including Egypt, expanded through trade routes, both overland and maritime. This expansion not only facilitated trade but also led to a significant migration of individuals between Iran and Egypt, fostering regional cultural interactions and exchanges. Pottery is one of the most important and abundant material artifacts in archaeology, and among the significant types of pottery produced in the Islamic Middle Ages is lustreware pottery. This type of pottery, due to its decorative nature and extensive use of intricate patterns in its decoration, has often captured the attention of people and served as a commodity for exchange. Therefore, by studying its iconography, one can discern the extent of cultural interactions between the two regions. This study, conducted through a descriptive-analytical approach using library sources and information from museums worldwide, aims to answer the following question: What similarities exist between Egyptian and Iranian lustreware pottery, and how can we justify the political and cultural exchanges between Egypt and Iran? The findings indicate that many of the patterns found on lustreware pottery in Egypt and Iran are similar, with some common elements resulting from two factors: 1) trade and 2) migration of potters to Iran. The production of lustreware pottery initially served as a luxury item influenced by political factors and tied to governments. Over time, it became accessible to the middle strata of society and enjoyed relative abundance. Therefore, the abundance of this pottery in a region reflects the commercial power and economic prosperity of the government.

Susa was one of the oldest human settlements and the center of Elam civilization. This civilization has been studied by many archaeological groups due to its pioneering in art and ancient structures. One of the most important findings of the material heritage of this region is the patterned pottery. In the samples obtained from the pottery, various geometrical, plant, animal and human motifs can be seen, which have important concepts and themes. At the first look at the concept of these motifs, the relationship between the writers and nature can be seen, and the research of this research was also aimed at answering the causes of the emergence and understanding the concepts of the mentioned motifs. Also, has the influence of the various characteristics of Susa on the design of pottery been discussed? And has the role of rivers near Susa been investigated in the morphology of pottery?The issue of the effect of environmental factors on the life cycle and its manifestation in a symbolic form in the pottery motifs expresses the experiences and life flows of ancient times. Experiences and currents that are full of feelings, beliefs and efforts to overcome adversities and dominate nature, but in order to properly understand these issues, it is felt necessary to explore and research as much as possible in the relevant subject. A research that sheds light on the hidden aspects of the position and culture of ancient Susa civilization.After explaining the topics and linking them with environmental factors, it is concluded that factors such as: the existence of rivers with water, fertile lands, high mountains and the creation of silt due to erosion (water and wind) in Khuzestan plain has had a direct influence on pottery designs and art. From the obtained pottery, various abstract motifs can be seen, such as: cypress, goat, longnecked birds, ..., which This research has used the historical-analysis method in analyzing the meanings of the elements that are symbolically and abstractly depicted and has used the library-document method to collect the sources.

Pottery is one of the most important man-made artifacts, and with time, its manufacturing and application technology has also changed. Therefore, in most archaeological excavations, pottery artifacts occupy a major part of the discoveries, and most of these artifacts have special damages. Some of these damages are common, such as fractures and cracks, and some are special due to the burial conditions and low quality in the construction technique; Such as body layering damage that requires special protection and restoration studies. In this study, a sample of terracotta cauldron hanging on the Segzabad hill of Qazvin Plain belonging to the Iron Age period was studied. This study aimed to understand the construction technique, investigate the damages on the pottery body and the cause of these damages. To answer these questions, instrumental tests, such as XRF, and comparative historical studies have been used. All these studies will ultimately help in the way of conservation and restoration that should be done. After all the protective steps to prevent secondary damage that may occur after its restoration, a box is designed to store the pottery and, in some cases, even display it. The result obtained from all the steps was the recognition of the construction technique and the documentation of the damage in the body, which ultimately led to the protection and restoration of this historical and cultural work.

Pottery is one of the most common Iranian arts that has always been the manifestation of various decorations by various designs. Themes in the art of pottery express themes and concepts, which ceramists have used as a platform to express their thoughts, beliefs, culture, etc. One of these themes that is common in pottery of every period and has been used many times is the theme of fish. Fish is one of the original themes that has been used in Iranian art before and after Islam as a decorative theme and according to the beliefs of the people works as a symbolic theme in various arts such as carpets, pottery and textiles, etc. By analyzing each of these valuable artistic elements, one can understand the culture, civilization, mentality, etc. of these people. Although, this role may have changed during various times and periods due to different cultural, religious, social, etc. reasons, and sometimes with a natural form and structure, and sometimes in an abstract form. Nevertheless, it has not lost its main place and has always been used as a main and secondary them in decorating works (textiles, metals, carpets, pottery, etc.). Pottery is one of the arts that is often decorated with fish. In general, a large number of pottery from the Islamic period of Iran are painted with fish. In some of these potteries, the role of fish is the main subject of the work and in some others it plays a role as complementary theme. In both cases, this theme appears in various forms, structures, compositions and has created a beautiful reflection on these works. In this study, we try to examine the fish theme visually (composition, structure and form) according to the existing images, which leads us to the introduction and recognition of fish theme in dishes and understanding of types of composition, structure, form, etc. Now these are the questions What is the role of fish in Iranian pottery in terms of composition and structure? What is the appearance and position of fish in these potteries? This research has been formed with a descriptive-analytical approach and with reference to library and internet resources. By non-probabilistic sampling method, 30 samples of pottery with fish motifs belonging to the 6th to 14th centuries AH  were elected from foreign museums and collections such as Lakma Museum, Boston Museum of Art, Brooklyn, Harvard Art, Victoria and Albert London, Louvre, David Collection and Islamic art books, Then, in tables with linear examples, the types of composition, their structure and form are studied and the results are given so their properties can be analyzed.    The results of this study show that the fish theme is very rich and widely used in different forms and designs, which shows its visual power and high value. Spatialization of the fish design is so that it sometimes can be used as a decorative element in the form of a single theme or sometimes with other themes in different locations of the picture (center, corner, whole,…) depending on artist’s purpose. According to the research and analysis based on the existing samples of pottery with fish theme from the 6th to 14th century AH, they can be divided into five types of compositions. The fish theme is depicted in five types of index compositions (1/4, circular, horizontal, spiral, vertical).1.The 1/4 composition: is seen with a few fishes often on the corner and the bottom of the image. 2.The circular composition: in the center, whole or part of the image with the number of two or more fish is displayed. 3.The horizontal composition: The fish themes along with other themes (the subject of Iranian old stories) at the bottom of the second half of the image are shown rotating from left to right. 4.Spiral composition: Covering the entire space, they are seen moving and spinning on the spiral arch from inside to outside or vice versa. 5.Vertical composition: It is displayed linearly and statically.The obtained structure shows that no division has been made about this theme, and this theme has the ability to place and spatialization in different locations of the image with various number. The form used in most samples is close to reality and its lightness, softness, flexibility, and movement direction is used to move with or without the appearance (scales, wings, mouth, eyes) and is completely abstracted in various forms. Everything indicates that there is no limit to the drawing, numbering, and placement of this theme in the natural or abstract state in all periods..

Qara-Hasanlu is an area that, due to its location in the middle of the Ardabil plain, is of great importance in the archaeological studies of the region. During the archeological exploration in this area, various examples of pottery finds were obtained, which have not been researched so far. Advanced research based on library and field studies; It seeks to introduce, typology and relative chronology of the pottery of the mentioned area through the study of pottery obtained from the results of Qara-Hasanlu excavation and their comparative comparison with other places. The main question of this research is posed as follows; According to the variety of pottery types and matching them with other areas, the chronology of the pottery of this area reaches which period? The research findings show that its pottery includes all kinds of bowls, jars, Cebu, pot and pot, which are among the pottery of Iron I and II and historical period (Ashkan). The pottery of this area has similar types with other regional and extra-regional areas, including the north and northwest of Iran. Finally, according to the other cultural data obtained, the relative chronology of the site can be interpreted in such a way that this site was probably settled for the first time during the Iron Age I and II and after a gap period. Once upon a time, Parthian people turned this place into a ritual place by building an adobe platform on this hill and settled in this area temporarily and in some seasons.

Although Islamic artists were reluctant to represent living creatures in many decorative motifs, especially in the Islamic Medieval Ages, the script formed with human faces, animals, and mythical creatures remains a significant subject in the study of Islamic art and architecture. These scripts are mostly used in metalwork, but there are many examples in pottery decorations, especially in the early Islamic centuries and in Nishapur. So far, no research has been done on figural inscriptions, but researchers have addressed this field when working on other subjects such as talking tree, waq waq motifs, and some special objects. To our knowledge, Richard Ettinghausen’s classification and typologies of the figural inscriptions in the study of a container from the Cleveland Museum, known as the Wade Cup, are the strongest research in this field. The main issue in this article is the study of these inscriptions, regardless of whether they are considered as a kind of recreational scripts or a subset of waq motifs, and by looking at the formation, and thematic and temporal characteristics of the inscriptions one becomes more familiar with possible thoughts of patrons and artists. This study aims to accurately name this type of inscriptions based on the analysis of samples and their origin, themes, and various forms, which in turn helps to find out the reasons for using this type of script. Questions: What is the formal classification of figural inscriptions in non-architectural works at the time of study? What is the figural inscriptions’ meaning in art media such as pottery and metal, and is there a connection between the shape and the idea behind it? A descriptive-analytical approach has been used in this study. All the information was collected from library documents. The statistical population includes pottery and metal objects with figural inscriptions, from the early centuries to the seventh century AH in the Islamic world and the early European samples. Sample selection was done according to the 5 classifications presented in this article and also the introduction of new samples to help reach the research goals. Research results showed that figural inscriptions can be divided into five categories: 1- ornithomorphic, 2- human head, 3- zoomorphic, 4- a hybrid, and 5- animated inscriptions. Ornithomorphic and one of the zoomorphic inscriptions are among the early species, while animated inscriptions are evolved examples. In the study of themes, two main themes, including religious concepts and wishes and prayers related to good fortune, along with two sub-themes, including the signature and name of the artist and special poems were identified. As an interesting point, a correlation between the theme and the form was observed in several figural inscriptions, so that in the wishes and prayers related to inscriptions with the theme of astrology, the constellations with the concept of auspiciousness and astrology in the motifs were observed. Also, in the ornithomorphic inscriptions in Nishapur, a considerable number of vessels had the name "Ahmad" engraved in the center of the vessel. In our opinion, the name Ahmad was chosen as it is one of the Prophet Mohammad's names, and its combination with the bird-like design should be seen as a kind of correspondence between form and theme and the Prophet's ascension to the heavens. Both of these cases mentioned above, show a correlation between the form and theme and thoughts and ideas of the artists. In the Islamic field, due to the greater quantity, diversity, and the possible precedence of Nishapur specimens over the recently introduced specimens in Susa and Basra, Nishapur can be the origin of the use of such portrait inscriptions in the Islamic world. Based on the coins obtained in the Sabz Pushan area and the Tepe Madrasa, the production of these inscriptions in Nishapur dates back to the second half of the second century AH; to the time of the Samanids and most likely to the pre-Samanids.

Pottery of the Qajar era, unlike the architecture and tile work of this era, has been less studied by archaeologists and researchers of the art history of the Qajar era, and our information about pottery of the Qajar era is very limited compared to other periods of Islamic art history. Although some travelogues of this era refer to some pottery production centers in Iran, there is still no comprehensive information on pottery techniques and innovations in this era, as well as the main production and distribution centers of pottery in Iran during the Qajar era. During the renovation and restoration of the historical Ettehadieh complex in Tehran’s Lalehzar neighborhood, which was carried out in 2006 , a large volume of pottery from the middle of the Qajar era, especially the Naseri era (1264-1313 AH), was found and examined and classified in this research. Based on the data obtained, this research aims to answer what were the decorative features and pottery forms of pottery produced in Tehran in the second half of the Qajar era, and which group of pottery species and decorative patterns were repeated more in this pottery collection. As a result of this study, a wide range of glazes, decorative techniques, and pottery forms were identified, which are mentioned in the text of the article.Pottery of the Qajar era, unlike the architecture and tile work of this era, has been less studied by archaeologists and researchers of the art history of the Qajar era, and our information about pottery of the Qajar era is very limited compared to other periods of Islamic art history. Although some travelogues of this era refer to some pottery production centers in Iran, there is still no comprehensive information on pottery techniques and innovations in this era, as well as the main production and distribution centers of pottery in Iran during the Qajar era. During the renovation and restoration of the historical Ettehadieh complex in Tehran’s Lalehzar neighborhood, which was carried out in 2006 , a large volume of pottery from the middle of the Qajar era, especially the Naseri era (1264-1313 AH), was found and examined and classified in this research. Based on the data obtained, this research aims to answer what were the decorative features and pottery forms of pottery produced in Tehran in the second half of the Qajar era, and which group of pottery species and decorative patterns were repeated more in this pottery collection. As a result of this study, a wide range of glazes, decorative techniques, and pottery forms were identified, which are mentioned in the text of the article.

One of the critical tasks of archaeological studies is to illustrate in detail the geometric properties of pottery fragments. The illustrations are presented as classification and typological concepts for the potteries of a historical period. They are used to investigate the cultural and social structures of that period. Nowadays, most similar studies are conducted by numerical methods and mathematical modeling. This research examines the feasibility of using these methods and algorithms in the classification and typology of ancient potteries. What is important at first glance is introducing a set of geometric properties of the outer profile of the pottery fragments, which are entered to the algorithms in the form of RTC functions. These functions show unique features for an outer profile which are used in the classification and typology of the fragments. The classification of samples is accomplished based on RTC functions and by using an Artificial Neural Network (ANN). The samples are categorized in bowl, jug and jar classes with nearly 95% accuracy. The designed ANN is a three-layer network with one hidden layer that includes two neurons. Network outputs are numeric codes 0, 1 and 2 which refer to bowl, jug and jar profiles, respectively. In the following, by correcting the erroneous samples and out of a total of 209 pottery designs, 128 (61.2%), 42 (20.1%) and 39 (18.7%) samples were placed in bowl, jug and jar categories, respectively. After classification, the typology of the available samples within each class is also performed by the Neighbor Joining (NJ) algorithm. According to the NJ algorithm, the bowl, jug, and jar samples are distinguished by 83, 22 and 27 types, respectively. The accuracy of the typology method is also evaluated between 95 and 97%.

Pottery is one of the arts of the Islamic period. Pottery with the beginning of the Islamic era and Islamic art in Iran, due to having the spirit of simplicity, unity in role, color and full adaptation to the lifestyle, beliefs and culture of Islamic art paid special attention to it.In order to know more deeply thepatterns and their meanings in this sublime art, pottery of Meybod region, which is one of the most prestigious regions and the center of pottery in Iran, is culturally and historically ancient and economically very effective in the livelihood of its peopleIs selected as a sample of studies and seeks to answer the question that, what is the meaning and symbolic meanings of pottery motifs based on the symbolic language of Islamic art?The purpose of this research is to know the characteristics of form and color of Meybod pottery motifs based on the symbolism of Islamic arts,in order to pay more attention to the motifs used in the pottery of this regionand also the symbolic meanings of its motifs.The results show that pottery is a suitable platform for embossing human beliefs and ideas and the patterns and colors used in pottery are all symbolic and abstract derived from religious beliefs, social,cultural conditions and daily life of the people of this region and have Strong concepts of symbolism are in line with the culture and characteristics of Islamic art, which is the language of symbolism, purity and unity.Accordance with culture.And are characteristic of Islamic art.

the present essay aims to study, respectively, the significance and use, as well as techniques of making different types of glazes and ornamentation of wares and tiles according to a treatise by ʿAlī-Muḥammad Isfahānī, the renowned potter of Ḳādjār era. Although glazed ceramic wares of this era were mostly under the influence of the imported wares from Russia, China and Europe, and their market was not as thriving as that of the tiles, remained samples demonstrate that works of this period enjoyed some delicate underglaze, overglaze and lusterglaze techniques with fritware and clay bodies. Accordingly, such works are considered successful examples in terms of quality. The results of this essay show that despite the common belief in the stagnation of pottery in Ḳādjār era, the techniques concerning glaze and body making evolved to a great extent and yet we witness that some sort of evolution takes place in color variety and underglaze painting technique. The most significant technique in the wares and tiles of the Ḳādjār era is underglaze painting with transparent watercolors. Here, colors are of a wider palette in compare to Safavīd era, including new ones such as red, pink, orange, greens and purple.

Ceramics and the ceramics industry have undergone numerous changes since the emergence of tool-making humans on Earth. These changes have led to the development of various types of ceramics, differing in shape, design, nomenclature, size, preparation and Making methods. These are primarily found in archaeological excavations, and their conservation and restoration can be more accurately performed by understanding and identifying their types and varieties. Ceramics are classified into different types based on their manufacturing technique, firing temperature, the clay used, and the additives used in the clay body. These classifications can sometimes be quite scattered. For instance, based on firing temperature, they can be divided into four categories: stoneware, earthenware, bone China, and porcelain. Based on manufacturing methods, they can be classified into hand-built, slab-built, wheel-thrown, molded, and pressed. The aim of this research is to introduce the most important types of ceramics and their characteristics, including firing temperature, manufacturing technique, and other structural properties and materials used in the body. To achieve this goal, this study will explain some of the terminology used in ceramics and classify ceramics based on firing temperature, manufacturing method, and the type of clay that constitutes their clay body.

The Reconstruction of damaged cultural-historical artifacts is essential for facilitating communication with the audience and, in some cases, in their conservation. The methods used for reconstructing pottery artifacts vary based on their destructive characteristics, missing parts, and the requirements of the cultural-social context. These methods have been carried out using different materials and techniques throughout different periods. Naturally, as science advances in the field of conservation and restoration, these methods and materials continue to evolve. This article not only introduces some restoration methods for pottery objects but also delves into the restoration of delicate pieces using the papier-mâché technique. Reconstructing delicate objects presents challenges concerning stability and balance due to the added weight the use of numerous filling materials during the reconstruction of missing parts can create problems in maintaining the balance and stability of the artifact. Therefore, in order to assess the papier-mâché method in restoring delicate and lightweight pottery artifacts, a fine and lightweight vessel acquired from the archaeological excavations at the Silveh tepe, situated in West Azarbaijan province, was restored. The main objective of this article is to introduce and implement a fresh approach for reconstructing fragile pottery objects with papier-mâché, which is deemed a thoughtful method due to its lightness, strength, ease of modification, and ability to preserve the balance and stability of the artifacts.

Petrographic studies play a significant role in understanding the structural characteristics and compositions of ceramic artifacts, contributing to the identification of cultural transformations and exchanges based on technical changes in these objects. As such, it is consistently a central component of studies on analyzable artifacts. The archaeological site of Qoli Darvish, located 3 km south of the city of Qom, spans over an area of approximately 30 hectares and contains valuable archaeological remains, including distinctive types of pottery ranging from the Early Bronze Age to Iron Age I. In this study, aimed at investigating the texture, components, and classification of the pottery, 37 pieces of ceramic artifacts discovered during the 2015 excavations were analyzed. Thin-section petrographic analysis, focusing on identifying microscopic structures and existing minerals, was used for this purpose. The results revealed three distinct textures in the pottery samples: coarse-grained heterogeneous or porphyritic texture, fine-grained or silty texture, and clastic texture. The clay matrix of these ceramics shows minimal sorting of its components and contains grog and coarse fillers. Various igneous rock fragments, grog (remnants of silt, clay, or crushed ceramics), calcite, and quartz are visible in the samples. Based on the findings, it can be concluded that the materials used in the production of these ceramics were generally local and sourced from the surrounding region.

The Iron Age in Iran (550-1450 BC) and beyond, represents a period characterized by significant social, cultural, economic and technological transformations during its evolutionary stages. Zavarehvar is an Iron Age settlement site located in the Varamin plain in central region of Iran, where numerous excavations have been carried out by various archeologists in recent decades. During the 2017 excavation at the Zavarehvar site, a number of gray pottery pieces related to burials were discovered. Given the distribution of the Iron Age cemeteries and the limited technical studies conducted on these potteries, our understanding of the production methods such as texture, components, and manufacturing processes is crucial for comprehending the pottery production technology of this specific period. Therefore, the results from laboratory studies can be beneficial in finding the production process of these artifacts. This research aimed to provide more precise knowledge for conducting comparative studies and determining the local origin of these artifacts by examining nine Iron Age pottery samples from this region using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and petrographic analysis of thin sections. The results indicated that the main phases of the potteries, based on petrography, include quartz (SiO2), and calcite. The ICP-MS results also largely confirmed some of the petrographic observations. However, a significant part of the chemical clustering of ceramics was not due to heterogeneity in elemental composition, nor to differences in the clay sources used. Additionally, we can say that the potteries are local origin, since the soils studied showed significant similarities in trace elements with the pottery samples, confirming their local origin.

Throughout the history of pottery and among all the methods of pottery decoration, lusterwares, because of their shine and their gold-like reflection, have always been the subject of attention and admiration for everybody. Lustre is a metal glass nanocomposite thin layer made of metal in a silica-based glassy matrix. The lustre technique was first applied to glass objects in early Islamic Egypt and later to glazed ceramics in other Islamic lands, especially in Iraq and Iran. Lusterwares are one of the most beautiful types of ceramics in the history of Islamic pottery that the peak period of its popularity in Iran is related to the Seljuk era until the end of the Mongol period. The Luster masterpieces that are from the Seljuk, Mongol and Ilkhanid eras and even the Timurid era, represent the peak of using of decorative techniques to build the potteries. For some reason, this technique has become obsolete in the Timurid period and has been revived with the advent of the Safavid dynasty and has been produced with new features.Unlike the examples of the Islamic Middle Ages in Iran, there is little information about Safavid lusterwares, especially in the fields of shapes and forms, decorative patterns and the main centers for making luster, which raises the need for scientific research in this field. The aim of this study is to identify, classify and analyze the most important formal features and decorative motifs of these luster ceramics in accordance with the opinions of Islamic pottery researchers and to suggest areas as their manufacturing centers according to these characteristics. Accordingly, the research questions are: What are the features of forms and decorative patterns in lusterware ceramics in the Safavid era? And which areas were the main centers for the construction of these works? The research method is descriptive-analytical with a comparative approach and based on qualitative analysis. In this article, first, the information and images of a number of luster potteries of the Safavid era have been collected by using some electronic sources and library resources and then, 21 excellent luster ceramics of the Safavid era have been selected among the artworks in museums and collections for further study, taking into account the three factors: originality, quality and accessibility. After describing the formal characteristics and decorative patterns of the samples, the linear design of decorative patterns has been done to see more details. One of the limitations of the present study is the lack of access to many specimens and their specifications, which due to their location in the repository of domestic museums or outside the political and geographical borders of Iran, access to them or full photography and obtaining all dimensional details of them were not possible. Although many researches have been done about luster glaze ceramics in the Middle Ages, especially in the field of technique of making or laboratory examinations of glaze of this type of pottery or its decorative patterns, but about lusterwares in the Safavid era, limited research has been done and little information is available; most of which are repeated in different sources. According to the research findings, in terms of form, Tofdan and especially different types of Sorahi with small-sized designs are the most significant and special products of the Safavid era lusterwares. In terms of color quality, pottery is divided into three general categories: gold patterns on white background, gold patterns on azure background, and a combination of gold patterns on separate white and azure glazes, and in terms of the content of the designs, despite the influence of Chinese landscape making on the type and details of the designs and the style of execution, it shows independent methods. Also, the influence of Ottoman and Indian-Mughal art styles in the field of some decorative designs shows the artistic relations between the Safavid era Iran and these neighboring lands. The cities of Tabriz, Qazvin and Mashhad in the 16th century and the cities of Isfahan, Yazd and Kerman in the 17th century, are the most important areas in Iran that can be named as the centers of production of lusterwares ceramics in the Safavid era. In the end, it is reminded that the current research has been done according to the available samples and cannot claim to study all the dimensions of the Safavid era luster glaze, so, further research in this field seems necessary.

In the Aavant-gardes movements that 20th-century art has seen before the 1940s, painting, sculpture and poetry have been intimately connected. On the other hand, applied arts have been not only the best content for industry, but also as a medium in the hands of artists. After World War II, movements were formed that were particularly central to freedom of expression.  The Cobra movement is one of the important movements that took place at that time, when extraordinary expectations and events of the future were expected and a large number of artistic geniuses were active at that time.The artists founded the Cobra movement, one of the most important and influential movements of the 20th century, with the aim of creating a better society and thinking that creative expression could be the creator of a global language. This movement held many exhibitions and published a magazine called Cobra during its career, and despite the short time of its official activity, it had many influences in the formation of other future movements.This movement, which was formed in Paris in November 1948, was a reaction to the conflict between Abstruction and Figuration, and founded by poet Joseph Navare and painters such as Carl Apple, Constant, Corneille, Cristian Detromonte and Asgar Jorn. Since most of the artists in this movement were living around Copenhagen, Brussels, and Amsterdam, the name of movement was chosen by the initiative of these three cities, hence the article is called CoBrA.Members of the Cobra movement reject western rationalist culture, which they believe world war II shows its consequences and devastation, and with the hope to achieve the sources of artistic creations, seek their forms that are not polluted by Western laws and rules. These forms include totems and magical signs of primitive cultures, Eastern calligraphy, and prehistoric arts. At the same time, this group of artists is also mindful of the untapped aspects of their own culture; nordic folk art, primitive art, the simple art of the childless world, and even the art of mentally retarded people. In their view, these works are very strong and powerful and are closer to the nature, instinct and psyche of individuals and in fact represent the artist's deep identity.The artists of the Cobra movement, whose focus was freedom of expression, did not place any restrictions on their own in terms of methodology or content of the works. So, in their artworks, pottery works are found numerously. Pottery works of this movement have no similarity and direct relation in terms of the method, form and content of the works with pottery in its traditional meaning and form. Therefore, understanding and accepting these works like every other artwork depends on understanding the thoughts of their creator artists. Therefore, the following research is looking at how the form and content of the works of pottery members of this movement are. The main question discussed in the article is: How are the pottery works of artists of the Cobra movement in terms of form and content?  So, this research has been set into two main parts including the research literature and data and results of the research. The research literature first takes a brief look at the cobra movement, which introduces the movement, and then looks at the pottery works of Cobra artists and studies the beginnings of pottery for them and the prominent artists in this field. In the data section and the findings of the research, it analyzes the characteristics of the pottery works of these artists in the form of five main features, that are extracted from the studies in this field.This paper has been conducted with an applied purpose and descriptive-analytical method and analyzes the pottery works of artists of this movement. The information and data were collected through library and electronic documents. The selected samples were selected by descriptive method and based on research objectives and available samples. Data analysis was performed by qualitative method. There is not a reliable and comprehensive source in Persian regarding the Cobra movement, the formation and thoughts formed in this movement and only a few references have been made to it in books and electronic sources that deal with contemporary Western art. However, in Latin, there are many books called  COBRA that analyze the thoughts and works of its artists.In the study and research on the cobra movement and the characteristics of the art of its members, some cases have been highlighted, colorful and important in their works. These characteristics can be distinguished in a few cases, which can be seen in most of the works of members of this group, by any method and material they have been created. Studies conducted in this study showed that the artworks of members of this movement are accompanied by several important features that were extracted and categorized for ease of information presentation and coherence in the text. According to the studies, the works of the members of this movement have some characteristics including the freedom of the artist to create the work and create the works without preconception and unconsciously, the primitiveness of the works and attention to the art of the primitive tribes, the creation of childish works, the anti-professionalism of the works created by the artist and the creation of the works collectively  and in groups, which were dealt with in detail in the text of the article. Only a few artworks of members of this movement are created and there are not many available examples of these works. But this limited number somewhat represents a unique, transformative and influenced atmosphere of the thoughts of members of this movement and their analysis is not possible except through their thinking.  Therefore, it can be said that the works formed in this movement have five main and general characteristics in their form and content. All of these features and sometimes a number of them are evident in the pottery works that the main of which is freedom and improvisation in the creation of the work which is seen in almost all the works created in this movement. Paying attention to children's art and primitive art are other features of Cobra pottery artists that has been addressed in many cases. Another common feature of all these works is the unspecified of its artists that lead to the point that these works have made by artists who are not potters and are mainly painters or sculptors, and even poets and writers are among them. Creating group works in the pottery works of artists of this movement is an emerging phenomenon at the time when the works are simultaneously created by several artists. These features can be explored not only in pottery works, but also in other works done by the artists of this movement.

Due to the instability and sometimes sensitivity of archaeological objects, conservation and restoration of them usually require a complex procedure along with basic studies and pathology in the restoration process. Since pottery objects are more stable than other objects, they can be restored after preliminary investigation regarding the level of strength and hardness of surface sediments, if there is no special problem. In this report, we introduce and describe the conservation and restoration process of a number of Zanjan salt men collection pottery, transferred from the Zulfiqari Museum of Zanjan to the pottery department of the Research Center for Conservation of Cultural Relics for conservation and restoration operations. These objects, which were sometimes cleaned and temporarily patched at the excavation site, were thoroughly checked and all connections were opened. The parts were cleaned separately using various mechanical and chemical methods and after finding the correct parts, the connection was made again. Finally, the parts that needed to be reconstructed were reconstructed with plaster following the pattern designed for this collection and considering the basics of restoration.

Sometime replete with sense of life, Gonabad pottery and its motifs have gradually lost their original meanings and concepts in the course of time and now those meaningful motifs reduced to just some decorative motifs without their initiative notions for most of potters making pottery and applying those motifs on the works. Therefore, it seems necessary to authors to determine the basic, essential concepts of motifs on the pottery forgotten as a result of transmission by oral history as well as time passage. The aim of this study is to introduce and reexamine the concealed thoughts, ideas and philosophies these motifs have maintained within them during thousands of years. The research is based on descriptive-analytical methodology and the data collection method on library review. According to the concept of study, the main sources for related data, articles and so forth in the research were scientific databases.The results indicate that there are generally three types of motifs on Gonagad pottery, including zoomorphic, vegetal and geometric. In the zoomorphic group, peacock, sparrow (little bird) and pigeon (big bird) are so prominent that those like peacock and sparrow have appeared on Gonabad Great Mosque’s portal as well. In the vegetal motifs the tree and in geometric ones the sun motif is of significance. In fact, the basic concepts of such motifs are embedded in popular stories as well as in folk beliefs, manifested symbolically in the form of single images on the pottery. Furthermore, the motifs had strong and close relations with the religious beliefs of that period as well as the subsequent eras. Specifically, peacock motif on the one hand was prominent in Islamic Art and on the other it carried Zoroastrian connotations.