thermal comfort

Iran’s vernacular architectural heritage includes fine examples of sustainable architecture which, in this type, minimal energy consumption, and the use of passive systems to create living comfort is the fundamental approach of this architecture to establish a suitable environment for human life. The importance of knowing its climate adaptation features and using its lessons for today’s architecture has been less considered. The two most important types of Iranian vernacular architecture are troglodytic architecture and stone masonry architecture, most of them can be seen in the rural architecture of Iran.Troglodytic architecture creates human living space by digging in stone beds or condensed soil settlements. Stone architecture is the result of arranging pieces of rubble with mortar on top of each other and both types have the lowest energy exchange between indoor and outdoor. The thickness of their architectural layers provides a more accurate understanding of them by carefully studying the conditions of their climatic compatibility with the geography of their settlement and their behavior against climatic hashes.

Methodes:

This research focuses on a comparative analysis of thermal comfort levels across two distinct architectural styles in Iran’s vernacular architecture, utilizing a statistical comparison research method to derive meaningful insights. Troglodytic architecture, which represents a unique and rare form of vernacular architectural heritage in Iran, is characterized by its methodology of creating habitable spaces through rock excavation. This approach enables significant interaction with the earth’s thermal mass, facilitating natural heating and cooling mechanisms that are particularly advantageous in regions that experience both cold and hot climatic conditions.The Maymand World Heritage Site is a quintessential example of troglodytic architecture, situated within Iran’s semi-arid and hot climate zone. This research examines the indoor thermal comfort levels of four units within the Maymand architectural complex and compares these findings with four units from the traditional rural stone architecture found in Riseh, Shahr-e-Bābak. To achieve accurate and reliable results, indoor bioclimatic monitoring was meticulously conducted for seven days during the winter season. This monitoring allowed for the calculation of the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) thermal comfort index for the selected buildings located at both sites.

The findings from this comparative study revealed that the PMV thermal comfort index stood at -2.12 for the Maymand rock-cut buildings, while it was recorded at -3.28 for the structures in stone masonry houses in Riseh. Additionally, an analysis of the indoor temperature averages for both type of indigenous architectural complexes concerning their respective outdoor temperature averages yielded further insights. During the cold season, the indoor temperatures in Maymandand Riseh demonstrated significant variances from the outdoor temperatures, specifically showing differences of 13.27°C and 7.83°C, respectively. Notably, the Maymand structures exhibited superior performance, achieving a more favorable temperature difference of 5.44°C compared to their Riseh counterparts.In conclusion, this research indicates that the architectural features of the Maymand buildings, which include substantial settlement layer thickness, low heat exchange coefficients in the walls, and effective utilization of groundmass temperature, have collectively fostered an environment conducive to thermal comfort. This architectural complex has achieved these favorable conditions with minimal energy consumption or, in some instances, entirely without it. Conversely, the traditional stone architecture in Riseh exhibits a thermal comfort level that is 54.7% lower, reflecting its less effective performance under similar environmental conditions when compared to the troglodytic structures of Maymand. The implications of these findings underscore the importance of architectural design in enhancing indoor thermal comfort, particularly in regions facing extreme climate variations.

The reason for this is the structural integrity of the troglodytic architecture and the depth of its penetration. Also, the level of contact with the open air and the influence of its temperature in stone masonry buildings is more than that of troglodytic architecture which is another reason for the lower level of thermal comfort in these buildings compared to the troglodytic architecture. In general, the characteristics of thermal comfort and energy consumption in troglodytic architectural heritage can provide many design patterns for today’s architectural designers, such as more application of ground heating and utilization of materials with suitable thermal phases. Also, the need for more conservation of these two types of architecture becomes more important because unique examples like Maymand have many unknown architectural patterns that have not been studied yet.

The purpose of this research is to evaluate the performance of the form of large-scale office buildings in Tehran and to achieve an optimal shape of the form to provide annual thermal and visual comfort in accordance with the 4th edition of the 19th Topic.

This is an applied research of the theory-building type, which has investigated the relationship between form geometry and sDA, DGP and PMV variables in order to achieve the goals. The research method is descriptive-analytical, after extracting the library, the primary data has been validated in the field, and it has been modeled and simulated with DesignBuilder software and Honeybee plugin in Grasshopper. Also, the analysis of the data obtained from the simulation has been done with interpretation and comparison.

The rectangular form with two central courtyards has the best status in PMV index and the worst in terms of DGP. The proposed subspecies of the mentioned form with a ratio of core to shell of 2:1, while maintaining the conditions of PMV, was able to be placed in the standard mode from the point of view of sDA and DGP.

The form of most of these buildings is not suitable for providing thermal and visual comfort conditions according to the 19th topic. Designers can use the rectangular form with the suggested core-to-shell ratio of 2:1 to meet the requirements and obtain the EC category of this subject.

 Humans are inherently social and require personal space to maintain comfort, both individually and in groups. Territoriality is essential for structuring one’s environment and expressing identity. Defining territorial boundaries is a key step in placemaking and spatial identity. Understanding how territoriality forms involves examining theoretical indicators. Among these, thermal discomfort can cause a sense of congestion and influence how people define their space. This research investigates how thermal comfort impacts spatial territoriality, using public space as the study context due to its limited options for personalization.

The purpose of this research is to validate the hypothesis that thermal comfort, a territoriality prerequisite in human environments, is a determining factor of spatial territorial formation desirability. It also explores the underlying values of indicators of territorial formation in the case study environment.

The present research is based on an inductive methodology and adopts a mixed-methods research design. The metrics regarding territorial formation and the underlying theory were established through qualitative data collection and an extensive literature review. The research incorporates thermal comfort simulations based on the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) for identifying thermal comfort zones within given territories. In response to the research question of how people prefer thermally uncomfortable spaces as attractive territories, a comparative analysis was conducted using both direct tracking and saturation sampling approaches. The findings show that users interact with thermally uncomfortable areas. The research goes further beyond these findings by trying to uncover the underlying meaning of indicators of territorial construction through a one-sample T-test, and it also examines gender differences using an independent-sample T-test.

As opposed to the initial study hypothesis, the study findings reveal that the preferred areas of the case study participants are not thermally comfortable. The T-test also shows gender differences in relation to the perceived importance of signs of territorial formation.

Problem statement: 

In hot and arid regions such as Kerman, vernacular architectural design plays a crucial role in ensuring optimal thermal conditions and long-term comfort for residents amid increasing temperature fluctuations. Given this significance, assessing the impact of enclosed and semi-open spaces in Kerman’s traditional buildings from the perspectives of thermal environment and adaptive thermal behavior is of high importance.

This study aims to comprehensively examine the influence of enclosed and semi-open spaces in Kerman’s vernacular buildings on thermal environment, thermal adaptation behaviors, and residents’ thermal responses in a hot and arid climate.

Utilizing advanced statistical methods, this research gathered and analyzed data from a year-long field study. The assessments included environmental measurements in both enclosed and semi-open spaces and the determination of thermal comfort indices based on existing standards.

Findings indicate a significant difference in the thermal environments of enclosed and semi-open spaces, leading to varied thermal comfort conditions at different times of the day. Furthermore, residents’ thermal adaptation behaviors are closely linked to the spatial configuration of buildings. Notable findings include differences in neutral temperature, acceptable temperature (80% satisfaction), and preferred temperature, measured at 1.1°C and 0.9°C (neutral temperature), 2.2°C and 2.7°C (acceptable temperature), and 1.6°C (preferred temperature) during transitional seasons and summer, respectively. The results confirm that the thermal diversity present in Kerman’s vernacular buildings significantly impacts adaptive thermal behaviors and residents’ comfort levels. The smart design of enclosed and semi-open spaces, by offering distinct thermal conditions, enhances thermal adaptation and improves overall comfort, emphasizing the critical role of vernacular architecture in adapting to hot and arid climates.

Thermal comfort in enclosed intermediary spaces is an important aspect of architectural design that affects the performance of buildings during their operational phase.Until optimal thermal conditions are present in a space, an individual cannot make the best use of that space. Most recent studies on thermal comfort in Iran have focused on traditional residential buildings, with less attention given to public and educational spaces. Intermediary enclosed spaces in buildings, due to their stronger thermal connection to the external environment compared to the main interior spaces, require different thermal standards. In contemporary public buildings, these spaces include circulation areas, lobbies, corridors, and atriums. Their location makes them more thermally exposed to the outside, resulting in greater thermal separation from the building's interior spaces. However, ventilation systems and thermal comfort standards designed for main spaces are often applied to these areas, which can increase energy consumption.Moreover, these spaces differ from the main interior spaces in terms of their usage, the duration of occupant presence, the type of clothing worn by users, and their activities. Users encounter these spaces upon entering the building, and their thermal perception in these areas can impact their overall comfort in the interior spaces. This review article, through deductive reasoning and a literature review of previous research, explains the theoretical foundations of thermal comfort and uses observations to examine environmental conditions and occupant behavior in enclosed intermediary spaces of higher education institutions in Iran’s hot and dry climate. Previous research indicates that conventional standards for designing these spaces are unsuitable and that modifying them could lead to energy savings across the building. Additionally, research shows that using the Adaptive Model (AM) to determine neutral temperature and thermal comfort in these spaces is more effective than the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) model, offering a more accurate assessment of thermal comfort in these dynamic spaces.

Determining the range of thermal comfort in the outdoor space is complicated, and since the presence of thermal comfort helps more people to be in the outdoor space, it is important. In the current research, it has been tried to determine the thermal comfort limit of people in the outdoor space of traditional and restored buildings in the hot and dry climate of Yazd city. For this purpose, a field monitoring was carried out in the hot season of the five central courtyards of the Yazd faculty of Art and Architecture as buildings that have been changed from residential to educational use, which includes the measurement of climatic information at the same time as the completion of 389 thermal comfort questionnaires by the students of the faculty; Then, with the help of Ray Man and SPSS software, the obtained information was analyzed and after checking the linear regression charts, the range of thermal comfort for people in the central courtyards of the faculty as a microclimate in the hot and dry area of ​​Yazd city between the range of 16.5-28 degrees Celsius based on the Physiologically Equivalent Temperature index (PET) was obtained. Due to the fact that the combination of climatic and geographical factors for each specific region will lead to a different understanding of the thermal comfort conditions for the people of that community, this comfort range is different from the comfort ranges in other regions that have been determined in numerous researches. From the comparison of the studied yards, it was found that the more the yard has a height-to-width ratio and the more enclosed it is, the more shade it will receive and, finally,more thermal comfort during the day and night for the hot days of the year.

The rapid pace of urbanization and its associated environmental challenges, coupled with the rising demand for energy to regulate thermal conditions, have underscored the necessity of addressing the microclimatic consequences of urban development. Given the increasing global temperatures and the urgency of climate adaptation, it is essential to examine the impact of urban form on microclimatic conditions and thermal comfort. The historical urban fabric of Shiraz, particularly in the Sang-e Siah neighborhood, represents an exemplary case of passive adaptation to climatic conditions. Through careful spatial planning, traditional urban layouts optimized thermal comfort by minimizing solar exposure and enhancing ventilation. However, recent modifications to the city's historical districts have undermined these adaptive strategies, leading to increased urban heat stress and a reduction in outdoor comfort levels.
Meteorological records from Shiraz indicate a persistent rise in average temperatures, aligning with global climate change trends. These data highlight the importance of incorporating climate-sensitive urban design strategies to improve thermal comfort. The traditional design of Shiraz’s historic districts, characterized by narrow alleys, shaded pathways, and strategically oriented streets, exemplifies an effective response to the city's climatic challenges. This study aims to quantitatively assess the impact of geometric transformations in the Sang-e Siah neighborhood on microclimatic conditions and thermal comfort. Theoretical Framework:  Urban geometry consists of key parameters such as the sky view factor (SVF), height-to-width (H/W) ratio, and street orientation, all of which play a critical role in influencing climatic factors such as solar radiation exposure, wind flow, temperature distribution, and humidity retention. These elements collectively determine the thermal comfort of outdoor urban spaces. A reciprocal relationship exists between urban microclimates and broader climatic systems, with urban geometry serving as a crucial intermediary. By adopting climate-responsive urban design principles, planners and designers can mitigate unfavorable microclimatic effects, ensuring more livable and thermally comfortable urban environments. This study examines the extent to which changes in urban form influence these parameters and provides recommendations for sustainable urban planning practices.

This research employs a descriptive-analytical approach and falls within the category of applied studies. Data collection was carried out through a combination of historical document analysis, field surveys, and meteorological data evaluation. The ENVI-met software, a highly reliable microclimate simulation tool, was utilized to model the impact of physical alterations on thermal comfort in the Sang-e Siah neighborhood. To ensure the accuracy of the findings, simulated results were compared against on-site temperature, humidity, and wind speed measurements. The study focused on the hottest day of the year—July 1, 2022—to capture extreme temperature conditions and their effects on urban microclimates. This methodological approach provides a robust basis for assessing the thermal performance of the historical urban geometry and its contemporary modifications.

 The findings of this study underscore the significant impact of geometric transformations in the neighborhood on microclimatic conditions. Specifically, the increase in SVF and the reduction in H/W ratios have resulted in the following effects:Elevated ambient temperatures due to increased exposure to solar radiation. Enhanced radiant heat effects, leading to a measurable decline in thermal comfort. Increased wind speeds in specific areas, contributing to dust dispersion while simultaneously reducing humidity levels. Decreased humidity, which intensifies heat stress and exacerbates outdoor discomfort. These combined effects have significantly reduced outdoor thermal comfort in the study area. The results emphasize the importance of maintaining traditional urban design principles to ensure microclimatic stability in historic districts.

This study confirms that urban geometry variables such as SVF, H/W ratio, and street orientation play a fundamental role in shaping microclimatic conditions. The historical structures in Shiraz were designed in harmony with local climatic conditions, employing passive cooling strategies that enhanced thermal comfort in outdoor spaces. However, modern transformations—particularly the widening of streets and reductions in building heights—have disrupted this balance, exacerbating urban heat stress. To promote sustainable urban development, urban planners and designers should integrate lessons from Shiraz’s historical urban fabric. Strategies such as limiting SVF through shaded pathways, maintaining optimal H/W ratios for improved thermal regulation, and orienting streets to maximize natural ventilation can serve as effective guidelines for improving urban thermal comfort in Shiraz and other arid cities experiencing similar climatic challenges.

This study aims to investigate the impact of shading devices and airflow velocity on the thermal (energy) performance and convective flow in a south-facing double-skin façade of a building located in Semnan, a hot and arid region in Iran. The research seeks to determine which type of shading device, including inclined and multi-layer shades, can most effectively reduce indoor temperature and enhance convective flow.

Numerical simulations were conducted using SolidWorks and COMSOL Multiphysics software for geometry modeling, fluid flow simulation, and heat transfer analysis, respectively. A two-dimensional double-skin façade with various shading configurations was considered, and turbulent natural ventilation flow within them was examined.

Simulation results demonstrated that the geometry and airflow velocity significantly influenced the velocity and turbulence of the airflow within the double-skin cavity. A geometry with a multi-layer (asymmetric) shading device exhibited an 18.5% temperature reduction at the same wind speed. The maximum temperature reduction occurred in a geometry with a multi-layer (asymmetric) shading device and an airflow velocity of 5 meters per second. In other words, the best thermal performance was observed in multi-layer shading devices.

This research indicated that the use of multi-layer (asymmetric) shading devices can effectively reduce indoor temperature and enhance convective flow. These findings suggest that the appropriate design of shading devices can be employed as a passive method to reduce energy consumption in buildings.

Considering the share of about 35% of energy consumption by buildings, energy consumption management requires special attention from architects. Building form is one of the most influential parameters on energy consumption, and the Yazd city, as an example of an arid and warm climate, is the focus of this research. The purpose is to provide a solution to produce the optimal form of independent vernacular building as a basic policy in the conceptual design phase in Yazd city.

Using parametric modeling and energy simulation by suitable computer tools, multi-objective optimization of the building form was carried out considering two indicators of thermal and visual comfort by genetic algorithm for the arid and warm climate of Yazd city. Several subsurface area values were considered as input and the results were presented in four general forms: cube, L, U and O.

In this research, the optimal options were analyzed and compared, and a general model for the optimal form and orientation of the building was presented. The results of the research showed that the most optimal form, considering the thermal comfort index as a priority index for all the investigated areas, is a rectangular cube form with a shape factor of about 1.8 and a north-south orientation.

Using the form and optimal orientation of the building as a passive policy that is the basis for other active and passive policies can have an Appropriate effect on creating comfort and reducing energy consumption in a combined manner.

Establishing thermal comfort zones solely through natural ventilation in hot and humid climates is challenging.. Continuous reliance on mechanical cooling can compromise indoor air quality, posing health risks to building occupants. The building's skin and windows play a crucial role in the heat exchange, cooling loads, energy demands, and the thermal comfort of the residents. This study aimed to minimize total annual discomfort hours and solar radiation heat gain from external windows while utilizing natural ventilation in a residential building in Asalouyeh City’s hot humid cliamte. Additionally, the study examined the impact of transparent and opaque wall materials, as well as window shadings, on the optimal Window-to-Wall Ratio (WWR)to minimize solar gain and discomfort hours.

For each common and proposed configuration of building construction and different values for WWR (10%-90%), the annual Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) were determined at 1-hour intervals in a sitting zone of the case study building. The indices were also determined for the thermal peak day at 30-minute intervals. The obtained values were compared with the comfort range recommended by ASHRAE Standard 55 (+0.5 < PMV < -0.5, 0 < PPD < 80%). The annual total hours during which achieving thermal comfort through natural ventilation is possible were calculated. Finally, the optimal window-to-wall ratio (WWR) and opening areas in the optimal construction configuration were determined using the optimization method.

With a WWR of 30% (a common ratio in building construction), the total annual solar radiation heat gain decreased from 3574 kW to 270 kW with proposed materials. The seating area remained within the comfortable temperature range for at least 737 hours throughout the year, thanks to natural cooling. Optimal WWR values included 10%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 22%, 24%, 26%, 32%, 34%, 36% in combination with open areas of  75%, 49%, 84%, 54%, 66%, 36%, 94%, 38%, 5%, 5%respectively. The optimal properties for transparent surfaces include aluminum thermal break window frames, a 1-meter overhang, and left and right side-fin shadings for windows made from lightweight concrete cast (Conductivity: 0.3800 W/m-K, Specific Heat: 1000.00 J/kg-K, Density: 1200.00 kg/m³, Thickness: 0.002 m), and 6mm/6mm air blue double-glazed glass (SHGC: 0.15, LT: 0.15, U-Value: 2.555 W/m²-K). The conductivity, specific heat, density, and thickness of the outermost and innermost layers were 0.16 and 0.17 W/m-K, 880.00 and 900.00 J/kg-K, 2800.00 and 1390.00 kg/m³, 0.002 and 0.005 m, respectively. The study also introduced the thermal properties of non-transparent surfaces.

Findings showed that the glass properties (Light Transmission and Thermal transmittance or U-Value) and Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (total solar transmission) are the most important factors in determining the optimal design compared to other parameters (including thermal insulation, R-value of non-transparent surfaces, shading devices). Although minimizing WWR is recommended for hot and humid climates, this ratio can be increased by choosing the appropriate glass.

This study critically evaluates the effectiveness of thermal comfort models in mid-rise residential apartments in Tehran, focusing on the discrepancies between theoretical standards and the actual comfort experienced by occupants. Tehran's variable climate and suboptimal construction quality present unique challenges in achieving thermal comfort, making it crucial to develop context-specific approaches. The study examines the limitations of the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) index, a key component of national standards in Iran, which often fails to account for occupant behavior, local environmental factors, and adaptive strategies. The goal is to identify gaps in these models and inform the development of more responsive thermal comfort guidelines, appropriate to the climate and cultural context of Tehran.

A convergent parallel mixed-methods approach was used, combining quantitative and qualitative data. Environmental measurements, including air temperature, humidity, air velocity, and mean radiant temperature (MRT), were taken across seasons in 35 residential units. Qualitative data were collected through surveys of 112 residents (60 females, 52 males) to understand their perceptions of thermal comfort and adaptive behaviors. Statistical power for the survey was set at 0.95, with surveys exploring residents' responses to different indoor conditions and their use of heating, cooling, and window management strategies.

The study found that the PMV index accurately predicted thermal comfort only 17% of the time, highlighting its limitations in Tehran conditions. Discrepancies between PMV and dry bulb temperatures were particularly pronounced in summer, resulting in significant discomfort Residents preferred neutral temperatures of 20.55°C in summer and 23.86°C in winter, which differed from PMV predictions. Poor insulation, inadequate windows, and inappropriate building materials were identified as major contributors to thermal discomfort.

The results highlight the inadequacy of static models such as PMV in the residential context of Tehran. Adaptive thermal comfort standards that incorporate environmental and behavioral factors are needed to reflect local climates and occupant behavior. This approach would promote passive design strategies, reduce energy consumption, and improve occupant comfort, thereby promoting sustainable residential environments.

Problem statement: 

The global need for environmental protection has propelled the green movement worldwide. An emerging management challenge for all organizations in third-millennium cities is to protect natural resources while reducing their negative environmental impact and increasing sustainable performance. Greening is needed in this era to preserve natural resources. Green architecture is examined and evaluated in light of the green movement that took place from the 1950s to 2010. Green architecture describes and evaluates the most relevant architectural projects that integrate the energy systems approach to reduce demand, provide renewable energy supply, and enable energy storage. Studies show that green architecture has evolved significantly and has been given different names depending on the interests or concerns of the time. It has progressed at varying rates depending on the technical, economic, environmental, and political drivers and barriers of each period.

The main objective of this paper is to provide a brief review of the relationship between the parameters of the green movement and explain the relationship between architectural design and human health in third-millennium cities. 

The research method adopted in this paper is the comparative study method, which focuses on the fundamental components of the green movement through the use of Bibliometrix and VOSviewer software to analyze and investigate 230 related published articles from 2008 to 2024, and infers the results in relation to thermal comfort.

The most important finding of this research is manifested in three components: thermal comfort, urban green space, and facade design. The main conclusion of this paper can be summarized and stated as devising green facade designs to increase green spaces based on thermal delight.

What has been effective in saving energy consumption in the old structures of Iranian cities is the observance of climatic principles in traditional architecture and the use of local materials in the region. In Iran, more than 40% of energy consumption is related to residential buildings. On the other hand, studies in the field of climate solutions to reduce energy consumption in traditional Iranian buildings are limited, among the studies that have been conducted in this field, we can mention the article "Traditional Architecture Values ​​of Semnan City in Optimizing Energy Consumption" written by Amir Hossein Salar, which describes the theoretical expression of architecture. Traditional has paid.In today's architecture, it is tried to ensure that the building can meet the thermal needs of the residents with minimal energy consumption, according to its design patterns. Meanwhile, traditional and native buildings in different climates of Iran are very suitable examples for examining the design patterns used in them. In this regard, this article aims to investigate the role of the orientation of the central courtyards of traditional houses in the hot and humid climate of Iran, from the point of view of optimizing the building's energy consumption and also creating thermal comfort for the residents. Hormozgan province is one of the hot and humid regions of Iran. In general, the weather of this province is influenced by desert and semi-desert weather. The weather of the coastal strip is very hot and humid in summers, but the temperature in this area does not exceed 52 degrees Celsius.The research process has been such that firstly, the site and the climate of the region, as well as the desired scenarios for the pattern of the central courtyards in the desired context, have been investigated and recognized. Then, with the help of simulation in Design Builder software, the orientation pattern of the central courtyards has been analyzed in line with the research objectives. Finally, the desired results are presented in terms of energy consumption and thermal comfort of users.In this regard, library studies, water and meteorological information and computer simulation with the help of Design Builder software have been used. Finally, the research results have shown; The use of the pattern of central courtyards in a rectangular shape with a width to length ratio of one half with an east-west orientation has been able to reduce energy consumption in the building by about 12%. Also, effective factors in thermal comfort such as; The air temperature and speed should set the radiation temperature acceptable at the threshold of the comfort of the users, and in a way, the conditions for creating the thermal comfort of the users in the space will be provided and the amount of energy consumption of the building will be reduced. Finally, it can be said that; The studies conducted show that there has not been much study on the influence of the orientation of central courtyards in residential buildings, especially in the hot and humid climate of Iran, using computer simulation. Also, the use of computer simulation to achieve more authentic and realistic results can be very useful; Therefore, in this article, the pattern of central courtyards in traditional houses in hot and humid climates has been investigated in terms of energy consumption and thermal comfort with the help of computer simulation and field studies to achieve the optimal pattern of central courtyards in this climate. The field studies conducted in the context of Dezful city show that in the traditional context of this climate, the pattern of the central courtyard has responded well to the needs of the residents. Therefore, this architectural element can be used well in new contexts and newly built houses, in order to meet the thermal needs of residents and reduce energy consumption costs. Therefore, this article seeks to investigate the orientation in the pattern of the central courtyards of this climate and provide the optimal pattern for the purposes of the research. For this reason, it seems that such a research is necessary and necessary.It also provided the conditions for achieving thermal comfort for the users to a large extent. In fact, it can be seen that by using traditional architectural elements and solutions in the body of today's buildings, it is possible to advance buildings in the direction of reducing energy consumption. Central courtyards in the heart of traditional buildings can be well used as one of these elements and solutions for the aforementioned goals and have an effective role in architecture.

The aim of this research is to evaluate the capabilities and limitations of climate parameters in Shiraz’s urban design and architecture with a focus on energy management. For this purpose, Climate Consultant software was used; this software can display and graphically examine climatic features and uses a strong and documented database called EPW in the time step of long-term hourly averages for radiation data, dry temperature, soil temperature at different depths, relative humidity, and wind speed and direction. Determining the level of comfort and providing energy-saving strategies in different climate zones are among the important capabilities of this tool. The results showed that the months of January, February, and December are completely outside the range of thermal comfort, and the most comfortable conditions are in the radiation range of 800 to 900 W/m2 with a temperature range of 20 to 25 degrees Celsius. According to the psychometric chart, 10.1% of the hours of the year are in complete comfort conditions, and reaching comfort conditions in other hours and days of the year requires the use of different strategies. The ideal thickness for the mass of the walls is estimated to be 4 to 5 inches with optimal materials (brick, concrete, and stone), and it is better for the mass of the inner wall to be denser than the outer wall. It is very convenient to use massive structures with small holes that perform night ventilation. Ceiling fans can reduce indoor temperature by at least 2.8 degrees Celsius. Flat roofs with light colors are the most suitable option, and in designs with courtyards, the presence of small ponds is very effective in cooling the adjacent rooms. Interior spaces and doors can be used to promote natural cross-ventilation. Also, to protect privacy, the design of air-flow jump channels can be used. By shading the windows in line with the direction of the prevailing wind, natural ventilation can reduce or even eliminate the need for cooling facilities

Recently, new combinations of passive solar systems are introduced to enhance their performance. Trombe wall is one of the popular passive solar systems which has been studied in different forms and in combination with various materials. The aim of the current research is to investigate the Trombe photovoltaic wall in residential buildings in Mashhad. The study was carried out using energy simulation by Energy Plus software. The vents of the Trombe wall are open from eight in the morning to four in the afternoon and closed for the rest of the day. Brick and concrete Trombe walls with photovoltaic coating panels are studied in three different positions, with varying air gaps, and different vents over the whole of a year. The variables are simulated in an integrated way. First, two rooms with 20-centimeter-thick brick and concrete Trombe walls were considered. Then, the dimensions of the vents (18% of the Trombe wall surface and 3/20 of the Trombe wall height), air gap (0.1 meters) and with different photovoltaic coverages (two and four square meters) were attached on the mass wall. In the next stage, by keeping the size of the vents fixed (18% of the surface of the Trombe wall) and changing the air gap (0.05 meters) the simulation was performed. Subsequently, the performance of photovoltaic panels on the glass and in the air gap were simulated. The dimensions of the room have been selected according to the dimensions of a living room in a typical residential building in Mashhad. The results show that for a room with a volume of 120 cubic meters with brick and concrete Trombe wall and 18% vent area, an air gap of 0.05 meters, and a coverage area of four square meters of photovoltaic panels, the received heat, electricity production, and thermal comfort significantly increase. The amount of received heat and electricity production are 257652.3, 307963.6, and 1975482 kilojoules, respectively. In October, thermal comfort was rated as cold. The heat received by the concrete Trombe wall is more than that of the brick one. As the coverage of the photovoltaic panels on the Trombe wall increased, the received heat and the temperature of the room decreased. Conversely, the greater the surface of the vents, the more heat is received in the room and the temperature of the room increases. The temperature of the inner surface of the photovoltaic panels and the heat received due to internal convection increases from bottom to the top of the Trombe wall. Photovoltaic panels on the massive wall perform better than those on the glass or in the air gap in terms of received heat, thermal comfort and electricity production. Therefore, it is suggested that photovoltaic panels be positioned on the massive wall, outer glass, and blind slats, respectively during the cold period of the year, while it would be the opposite for the hot period of the year.

Today, the rapid growth of urbanization and the increasing trend of greenhouse gas emissions, which continue to increase despite international efforts, have aggravated the climate change issue. Reaching an approach that balances the natural and built environment is one of the most essential human objectives in forming a favorable environment. To achieve such a goal, planning and designing cities in line with the principles of climate design is the primary and most crucial concern in this field of activity. The proposed criteria will encourage the process of becoming more energy resilient by planning a holistic approach to various and complex aspects of cities and looking at cities as dynamic complex systems in each urban functional area. Urban resilience refers to the ability of an urban system and all the social, environmental, and technical networks that make it up, in time and space scales, to maintain or quickly return to the intended function in the face of disruption, to adapt to rapid change and transformation of systems that limit current or future adaptive capacity. In the field of urban energy, resilience is inevitably linked to the concept of sustainability. However, the new towns planned in Iran to respond to the problems of the greater mother city at the level of metropolitan areas have not sufficiently considered the climatic conditions and local characteristics in the design. Therefore, according to the necessity of strategies to reduce energy consumption in the increasing trend of climate change, this research aims to investigate and analyze urban physical form design principles with an energy-based resilience approach to improve Thermal Comfort in Sadra New Town on the northwestern edge of Shiraz, the capital of Fars province. For this purpose, library studies and quantitative measurement using ENVI-met sub-climatic analysis software have followed the descriptive-analytical research method. In the first step, energy resilience criteria based on global energy resilience rating systems and theoretical research conducted, including smart location, resources and energy, transportation and use, neighborhood form and development pattern, and placemaking, were identified as five layers. Then, after designing the main structure of a sample neighborhood in Sadra according to the explained criteria for the physical form and energy-based resilient design and the physical and climatic analysis of the site, a series of selected points were simulated in Envimet software for which the thermal comfort index or the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) was extracted in the hottest month of the year. The evaluation result showed that no part of the neighborhood is in the optimal temperature range. In other words, the area needs help in terms of the thermal comfort of pedestrians in the summer season during the hot hours of the day. Finally, design guidelines and regulations were presented on a smaller scale by measuring the plan’s deviation from thermal comfort standards compared to the physical design, sky visibility factor, and other climatic indicators. The outcome of this research is to re-composing physical form with an energy-based resilience approach in an urban neighborhood, presenting strategies and policies that are extensible to new developments.

The integration of architectural and urban spaces with local climate conditions is crucial for ensuring building sustainability and achieving key objectives in sustainable development. Climate designers and architects have long emphasized the study of environmental data to understand diverse climate behaviors. Climate-friendly architecture aims to harmonize building designs with their natural surroundings. This study focuses on Qaleh Bala Biarjamand village, located in Shahroud city, Semnan province. The central inquiry revolves around identifying climate-responsive architectural solutions using thermal comfort indicators specific to this village. Employing a descriptive-analytical method with a quantitative approach, the study draws insights from field studies spanning 18 years and reputable meteorological sources. The research identifies a framework based on principles outlined by Olgi, Evans, Mahoney, and Givoni, emphasizing the use of natural energy resources. Findings underscore strategies tailored to the village's cold and dry climate, such as adopting compact, densely textured designs, reducing surface-area-to-volume ratios, and employing heavy materials with high heat capacity in southern walls. Additionally, minimizing window sizes emerges as a viable strategy to enhance climate-friendly architecture in this context.