The Opposition of Thought Schools of the Islamic World based on the Typology of Theological Refutation of Nadim’s Kitab al-Fihrist

 The intellectual debates from elite schools to the political arena are always considered an essential part of a society's thought schools. Some of such reflections can be understood from the resources of each period. Refutation is a type of writing whose primary purpose is to prove the invalidity of a particular belief or claim. The present study aims to examine the refutations introduced in the Kitab al-Fihrist of Nadim; some of which have generally disappeared. However, the analysis of their names and types can help to analyze the thought schools of the early Islamic society until 377 AH. Based on the typological technique, this research has studied three types of theologicalrefutations: 1) group-based (religions, eclectic ideas, and cults), 2) individual-based (individuals or their works), and 3) thematic-based. The results show that the Mu'tazilites were the pioneers of the refutations written on others and even among themselves, followed by the Imamis with a long distance. Most Refutations have been devoted to Christians. The determinists in the refutations in sects and religions have been criticized and rejected indicating the intellectual conflict of the Islamic society with determinism. The individual-based refutations written on the person or their works focused on the Mu'tazilites and their theological disputes. Bishr Ibn Moʻtamar and Abu Ali Jobba'i are known as the most famous apostasiographers. In the thematic-based type of refutation, the subjects of 'Imamate, Prophethood, Resurrection, and the Qur'an have received more attention. The origin of refutations came from Baghdad.

In Islam, like other religions, sectarianism has been influenced by various factors reflected in books and treatises. In each era, analyzing the titles of books can help to better understand discourses and intellectual geography. The early Islamic centuries are no exception, especially since it is a period of particular importance for understanding thought schools. These currents are known as the source of change and influence.The writing of books is accelerated from the second century AH, and varied types were produced. The refutation text is one of the types of books. A significant part of Islamic works is documented in criticism and rejection of each other. Although there are not many works left from the earliest sources, examining the books' names and their authors can show the concerns of Islamic thinkers and the intellectual conflicts in the Islamic society. These are the most critical factors eroding the power of the Islamic world.

Considering the importance and precedence of Al-Fihrist, written in 377AH, we examined the refutations based on the typological technique according to their numbers, authors and religion, subject, author's geographical location, and other types of information. The focus of the research is on Theological Refutations.In this research, 369 refutations were extracted from Al-Fihrist.  The necessary information was gathered based on other sources of Biography, Classes, History, Geography, etc. due to incomplete details in the fields.

 Traditional refutations emerged in the early Islamic society by theologians to disprove rival beliefs or claims. The review of 369 refutation titles in Al-Fihrist showed that Baghdad was their primary origin, and their main topic was theological discourse (287 Refutations). The Mu'tazilites were pre-eminent in the theological refutations followed by, with a great distance, the Imamis. The theological refutations of Nadim's Al-Fihrist were examined under three main categories. The refutation is written chiefly about the Christians regarding the eclectic religion.  Determination has been criticized and rejected the most among the sects, showing the importance of determinism debates in the Islamic society.In individual-based writing (individuals or their works) on a particular person or book of refutation, Mu'tazilite theologians were the most suspect of refutation. Yet, many intra-religious refutations have risen from their extreme rationalism. Rationalism based on Islamic heritage was influenced by ideas such as Greek philosophers and Iranian and Indian ontologists as well.Most of the refutations were Mu'tazilites, and most denied in refutations were Mu'tazilites indicating that the Mu'tazilites were claimants of theology. By presenting more or less systematic ideas based on rationalist conceptions, they formulated their theological views and rejected the opinions of others accordingly. This approach was inclusive and was not limited to Islamic sects and religions, as most refutations were Mu'tazilites. Among the refutations of the Imamis against the Mu'tazilites, most works were related to the Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid who encountered them by their methods. He noticed more of the issue of Imamate as the most critical point of difference between Shiites and Mu'tazilites. Imamate, prophecy, resurrection, and the Qur'an have received more attention in thematic-based refutations.