With age, some functions of the nervous system, including avoidance memory, are impaired. The beneficial effects of exercise on neurogenesis, increasing neuronal synapses, the treatment of mental disorders, helping improve brain injuries, and prevention of neurodegenerative diseases have been proven. Citrus limon is one of the plants mentioned in traditional medicine for its analgesic effects. Therefore, in the present study, the effect of four weeks of lemon essential oil consumption and swimming training on memory and pain in male mice was investigated. To this end, 40 male mice with a weight of 40±  5 g were studied. The mice were randomly divided into 4 groups including control, swimming group, group receiving lemon essential oil, and group of swimming training + consuming lemon essential oil. Swimming practice consisted of four weeks of swimming in water for 30 minutes per session and five sessions per week, and 50 mg/kg lemon essential oil was administered by gavage. The pain threshold was measured to evaluate the avoidance memory of the shuttle box using the tail flick test. The results showed that the essential oil of lemon and swimming training has significantly reduced pain (p < 0.001). Moreover, the combined consumption of lemon essential oil and swimming training increased memory in male mice (p < 0.001). Aerobic exercise, especially swimming, has had a positive effect on memory consolidation and reduction of pain threshold. Probably, consuming lemon essential oil due to the presence of strong antioxidants can reduce the feeling of pain and improve avoidance memory.

Tendon disorders are the important cause of lameness, decreased production and loss of economic in cattle. These disorders may be congenital or acquired. Acquired tendon injuries involve tendon laceration, avulsion and rupture. Direct trauma, breeding injuries, bulls fight, and, handling accidents are the most causes of tendon injuries in cattle. Deep and superficial digital flexor tendons and gastrocnemius tendon are commonly affected. Clinical signs of tendon injuries depend on the severity of injury. Pain, mild to severe lameness and recumbency are the clinical signs associated with tendon injuries in cattle. Treatment of tendon injuries consist of stall confinement, anti-inflammatory medications, limb supporting through application of cast or splint and tenorrhaphy. The prognosis of tendon injuries affects by the severity of injury. Common acquired tendon injuries in cattle are described in this article.

Claw capsule lesions are the most common cause’s lameness in cows. During the entire year of 2005 a survey was undertaken by sir author on the prevalence of different claw lesions causing lameness on 30882 cases of culled cows and bulls at central abttoir in the vicinity of Ardebil which was well equiped and with new constructions. After recording information for each case، the feet were amputated and solar parts of the claws were pared for more morphopathological studies. The claws lesion in cows (80/4%) was more than bulls (19/5 %) (p<0/05). A chi-squared test applied to the prevalence rate of claw lesion among all cases was 24/2 per cent. Most lesions occurred in the feet، the commonest were slurry heel (51/6%)، white line disease (24/2%)، diffuse septic pododermatitis (10/4%)، sole ulcer (9/3%) and aseptic traumatic pododermatitis (4/1%). The prevalence rate of claw lesion in the fore limb was higher than hind limb. Slurry heel was the most important factor as the cause of deep sepsis of the digit. The results obtained from this study demonstrate that lameness in an important problem in cows and beef herb in Ardebil. High prevalence of rate of lameness is due to poor management in hoof trimming and locomotion monitoring. On the other hand، Poor quality of floors (shaps، hardness، friction and hygiene) was the main cause of claw lesions، which occurred most frequently in the solar surface.

Lameness of the hindlimbs originating from the stifle joint is one of the causes of pain, production losses, and culling from herd in cattle. Stifle is a large joint divided into femeropatellar and lateral and medial femorotibial joints. The major soft tissue structures of the stifle joint are lateral and medial collateral ligaments, cranial and caudal cruciate ligaments, lateral, middle, and medial patellar ligaments, and menisci That contribute to stabilize the stifle joint and its function. Different disorders including fractures, arthritis, and injuries of the menisci, collateral, and cruciate ligaments, and upward fixation of the patella affect stifle joint in cattle. The most important sequela of the stifle injuries is degenerative joint disease. Various degree of joint effusion, pain and lameness are the common clinical signs of stifle injuries in cattle. Lameness of the stifle joint may be difficult to diagnose and treat. Therefore, careful examination of the hindlimb is indicated. Radiography and ultrasonography can be used for diagnosis of stifle joint injuries in cattle. Because of the economic considerations and other limitations, advanced diagnostic techniques such as arthroscopy, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging are uncommonly performed in cattle. Conservative management and surgical techniques are used for treatment of stifle disorders in cattle. Economic value of the cattle, severity of injury, presence of degenerative joint disease, availability of surgical equipment, and expertise of the surgeon should be considered for selecting of treatment options. Prognosis of stifle disorders in cattle is variable and depends on the type of injury, its severity, involved structures and concurrent injuries as well as cattle condition. In this article the most important soft tissues injuries of the stifle joint, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of these injuries are described.

Insect bite hypersensitivity (IBH) is a chronic, recurrent, seasonal dermatitis of the horse caused by bites of insects of the genus Culicoides. Worldwide, it is the most common allergic skin disease in horses. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of IBH in the suburbian riding clubs of Tehran. 900 horses, aged between 2 to 20 years, (male or female) during a 1-year period were used in this study. The most common symptoms were papular dermatits and alopecia. IBH symptoms were mainly located at the neck, ventral trunk and the legs. Accurate diagnosis and treatment of the allergic reactions is important to improve the quality-of-life of such individuals and reduce the risk for future sting reactions.