Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology
Volume:17 Issue: 6, Nov 2015

In this study, the relative performance of Mazandaran Wood and Paper Company as a major supplier of paper products in Iran was measured. Network Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) models with parallel structure were used to evaluate and measure its performance. GAMS software version 23.4 was used for data analysis. Results indicated that this company in all studied years had good performances based on the parallel DEA models. Also, according to the same models with parallel structure, 2007 and 2008 had better efficiency score than the other years. Finally, results indicated that, using the cross efficiency models, the company had the best performance in 2007. This result could be due to the input-oriented nature of the models. Consequently, by proper management and optimum consumption of the resources, the company had the best performance in 2007.

Vermicomposting, or using worms along with bacteria and fungi to recycle agricultural and organic wastes into nutrient-rich bio-fertilizer, has a variety of uses including protecting plants from disease. Through semi-structured in-person interviews, vermicompost practitioners across Kermanshah Province of Iran were surveyed to determine the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) of this emerging technology. The results provide useful implications for agricultural policymakers in general, and, in particular, for farmers who are seeking diversified sources of income. For both vermicompost practitioners and academicians alike, the SWOT analysis methodology combined with Analytic Network Process (ANP) analysis has implications for other types of agribusiness.

Ecological footprint analysis in agriculture is a new and evolving subject. The main purpose of the study was to assess environmental sustainability of conventional and conservation tillage systems using ecological footprint analysis in Hamedan Province. Global hectares (gha) were used to measure the ecological footprint unit. Data was collected through questionnaires and use of cross-sectional multi-stage cluster sampling in 2013-2014 cropping year. Results revealed a significant difference in global hectares (gha) between ecological footprints in conventional (2.96) and conservation (2.84) systems. Both cropping systems used agricultural lands more than the ecologically productive land required to offset the environmental impact of different farming activities, and are therefore considered unsustainable. However, conservation systems proved to be more environmentally sustainable. The ecological footprint of fuel factor (gas oil and electricity) in both cropping systems had the highest impact on environmental sustainability: 49.70% and 47.22 percent of global hectares; respectively. Although environmental pollution was reduced slightly by the conservation system, estimated footprint based on gha was worrying. Addressing these challenges requires a national commitment which would not be possible without government intervention.

In Asia, food security and poverty alleviation depends on sustainable rice production. The study examined factors determining irrigated and rainfed rice farming sustainability in Bangladesh. Data for the study were collected through a farm households survey, covering 390 rice growers (sample size was determined by using the Sloven’s formula), and also via observation, key informant interview, and in-depth informal discussion with relevant stakeholders. Validity of the survey instrument was assessed by experts through contents examination; yet, reliability was estimated by a post-hoc reliability analysis (the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of reliability was 0.86). Based on stepwise multivariate regression analysis, the study found that (i) grower’s knowledge, skill, and competency development are common influential factors affecting sustainable rice farming, (ii) the application of resource conservation technology in irrigated rice farming plays a leading role in increasing productivity and preserving natural resources, and (iii) raising land productivity is a decisive determinant for the sustainability of rainfed rice farming. The evidence-based policy implications deduced from the study are outlined.

Literature review indicates that systemic agricultural human resource development interventions are rarely carried out in developing countries, and limited knowledge exists about how successful they are. Learning transfer is the generalization of material learned, such as skills acquired or knowledge gained in training, back to the job. The main aim of this study was to analyze factors influencing sustainability learning transfer among farmers participating in Diffusion-Push Plans in Fars Province, Iran. A total number of 120 subjects were selected through stratified random sampling method. Results revealed that performance-outcomes expectations, perceived content validity, transfer design, opportunity to use, supervisor support, years of experience in farming, and age had a significant effect on participants’ learning transfer. The formula developed in this study contributes to quantify learning transfer and provides new opportunities for a deeper investigation of causal relationships among learning transfer factors using advanced statistical methods. Farmer training decision makers and other actors in the extension system should pay particular attention to the factors reported here as critical to learning transfer.

For maximum impact, high yielding improved varieties with significant yield advantages must be targeted to farmers and localities that value this trait most. Explaining farmers’ demand for yield can serve as a means of targeting the development and dissemination of high yielding varieties. This paper analyzes data collected from 395 farmers in northern Ethiopia using a zero-limit Tobit regression. According to the results, poor and marginalized farmers prefer varieties adaptable to poor weather and soils, early maturing, and those which can address diverse concerns than varieties exceptionally good in a single trait (like yield). The richer farmers demand more yield advantage over the existing ones to convince them to use Improved Varieties. For farmers operating in relatively good farming systems (soils, weather, etc.), investment has to be made not only on crop improvement but also on complementary inputs, improved practices, and market development. Farmers who consider improved varieties more marketable and valuable take up high yielding varieties with relatively marginal yield difference. In areas and farmers where there is lower demand for yield, other variety traits (like early maturity, yield stability, and adaptability to local soils/weather) are also important to consider in future crop improvement activities. To ensure that farmers who demand more yield use IVs more productively, the yield advantage, compared to the existing varieties under use, must be high enough and stable.

Sustainable coastal fishing management includes different components and factors. One of the practical initiatives to achieve sustainability is to evaluate or measure different criteria of sustainability and measuring sustainability of each system needs its own indicators. This study aimed to investigate different criteria of sustainable coastal fishing management in Beach Seine Cooperatives (BSC) in Guilan Province of Iran and to analyze different aspects of sustainable coastal fishing management in the cooperatives. The statistical populations of the research were 58 active BSC’s of Guilan Province, 36 of which were determined through formula of Cochran and were selected randomly. Sampling was done from September 2011 to April 2012.The method used in this research was descriptive-survey research and data was gathered through questionnaires. Reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed with Cronbach''s Alpha that was calculated for each of the seven criteria of the questionnaire (Cronbach''s α coefficients ranging from 0.78 to 0.93). The construct validity was analyzed with a factorial analysis of the main components whose applicability was verified by means of Bartlett’s test of sphericity and the KMO test (acceptable with values above 0.6). Technique used in this study was Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA), a general approach that can analyze complex problems involving multiple criteria used in sophisticated systems such as fishing. MCA is a decision-making tool to analyze and evaluate multiple indicators under a participatory group decision-making environment. Seven variable criteria of sustainability indicators including ecological, economic, social, institutional, coastal management, restocking the reserves, and resource conservation indicators were investigated. According to the results, social sustainability in BSC cooperatives had the best situation among different criteria of sustainable coastal fishing management, while the economic coastal management and resource conservation criteria had unfavorable status of sustainability.

In this study, the antioxidant activity and protective effects of Purslane Seed Water-Methanolic Extract (PSWME) in stabilizing SoyBean Oil (SBO) were tested. DPPH radical scavenging activity of PSWME at different concentrations varied significantly (P< 0.05), ranging from 15.41% to 79.06%. Total phenolic content in PSWME was 121.09 mg Gallic Acid Equivalent (GAE) kg-1 dw. The protective effects of PSWME at the level of 100 mg L-1 in stabilizing SBO were tested and compared to BHT in a concentration of 100 mg L-1 by measuring Peroxide Value (PV) and ThioBarbituric Acid (TBA) during accelerated storage (at 60°C). The results showed that PSWME, similar to BHT, reduced the formation of primary and secondary oxidation products in SBO. Therefore, the use of this extract as a natural antioxidant is recommended to prevent the oxidation of vegetable oils.

In this study, the milk-derived GalactoOligoSaccharides (GOS) were produced by Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and refined by an ultrafiltration-nanofiltration continuous membrane. By further investigation, we found that the GOS product purified by gel permeation chromatography mainly contained low molecular weight disaccharide and trisaccharide, that is, 4-β-galactobiose and tri-galacto-oligosaccharides. The cellular immune activity of the purified GOS was evaluated by using Intestinal Epithelial Cells (IECs). Results showed that GOS could significantly (P< 0.05) promote IECs proliferation in a dose and time dependent manner, and the relative proliferation rate after 24 hours culture was high up to 158% at the concentration of 100 μg mL-1, which was three time the value after 4 hours culture without GOS. Moreover, the production of IL-6 was observably increased and up to 133.54 ng L-1 with addition of 100 μg mL-1 GOS. These data implied that the purified GOS might have a role in promoting the immune adjustment, which could be utilized as a novel and natural immunoregulatory agent in the field of medicine and functional food. This work also revealed that the employment of transgalactosylation activity of β-galactosidase derived from the fermentation of probiotics such as Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus would enhance the value of the milk product due to the form of GOS.

Pistachio nut (Pistacia vera L.) is one of the most delicious and nutritious nuts in the world. In order to increase the added value of the pistachio nuts, it is necessary to develop new products to meet consumer needs. This is the first paper on pistachio halva. The product was developed using pistachio paste (as main ingredient), mixture of sugar-glucose, egg white and citric acid. The effect of soapwort root extract (from saponaria officinalis) and Glycyrrhizin (from Glycyrrhiza glabra) as whitening and emulsifying agent in three levels (0.00, 0.10, and 0.15%) on the oil separation, consumer acceptance, and texture of pistachio halva was investigated. Sensory evaluation was carried out after 4 months storage at 20±2°C. There was a significant difference (P< 0.05) between samples with and without soapwort and glycyrrhizin. The oil separation (R= 0.595, P=0.001), from halva were moderately correlated to the hardness. The sensory texture of halva was negatively correlated to the hardness (R= -0.694, P= 0.000) and oil separation (R= -0.730, P= 0.000). The sensory color (R= 0.652, P= 0.000) of halva was moderately correlated to the a-value. It is recommended that mixture of 0.10% soapwort root extract and 0.10% commercial Glycyrrhizin be used for the pistachio halva production. Using combination of soapwort root extract and Glycyrrhizin in the formulation of pistachio halva prevents oil separation from the product and increases its consumer acceptance. Development of pistachio halva would potentially increase the food uses of nuts and introduce consumers with a healthier non-animal snack food.

Piezodorus guildinii (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) is an important soybean pest, and one of its main natural enemies is Telenomus podisi (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae). Rearing of the parasitoid is constrained by the host's egg quality, which deteriorates after few generations in laboratory, therefore, cold-stored host eggs utilization could be a useful tool for augmentative biological control. Thus, the objective was to evaluate the quality of P. guildinii cold-stored eggs, on the performance of parental and F1 generation of T. podisi. Hosteggs 24 hour old were stored at -18°C for one (N= 53), two (N= 28) or three months (N= 29), and approximately 40 host eggs were offered to a T. podisi female per treatment, for 48 hours. The control treatment consisted of 24-hour-old non-frozen host eggs, obtained and kept at 24°C (N= 55). Parental generation parasitism and progeny´s emergence on frozen eggs was significantly lower than on non-frozen eggs, even for the shorter storage period. Male proportion and preimaginal development time of the progeny increased with freezing period. However, parasitism proportion caused by adults of F1, and emergence, male proportion, and preimaginal development time of F2 were not affected. Although the performance of T. podisi on frozen P. guildinii eggs was significantly lower than on nonfrozen ones, host eggs storage for up to two months allowed obtaining a parasitism rate of 40% with a high emergence rate. This could be helpful enough to maintain mass rearings, mainly during the host hibernation period, and to enhance field parasitism when host is scarce.

Reducing nitrogen status of floriculture plants is an effective tactic in pest management by decreasing host plant quality. Life table parameters and population growth rate of Aphis craccivora(Hemiptera: Aphidiae), as well as cosmetic and qualitative parameters losses associated with aphid infestation were evaluated in relation to N fertilization levels on Gomphrena globosa, under greenhouse condition. Four N fertilization levels (0, 30, 60, and 100% of recommended 2 kg m-3) were used. The results indicated that aphid’s intrinsic rate of natural increase on plants fertilized with 100% of the recommended N level was the highest. Abundance and population growth rate of aphid also positively correlated with N fertilization levels. The interactive effect of aphid population and N fertility significantly affected growth parameters of the plants. In the absence of aphid, plant yield improved linearly with increasing N levels. However, aphid population highly decreased shoot to root ratio and the number of flowers in plants fertilized with 100% of the recommended N level. According to our findings, fine-tuning fertility to reduce A. craccivora population is a steadfast tactic to produce marketable globe amaranth ornamental plant.

Aphids in unsprayed canola (Brassica napus Linnaeus) fields in Isfahan province (central Iran) were sampled for two growing seasons, 2011-2013. Sampling unit was a whole plant and 20 plants were sampled weekly. In the laboratory, heat-extracting and sub-sampling techniques were used to estimate the density of aphids. To determine the relationship between population growth rate of the aphids and degree-days,linear regressions were done between log of aphid density and accumulated degree-days. Homogeneity tests were done using pairwise comparisons between slopes. Aphid's preference for upper (10-15 cm upper part of stem) and lower (the rest of stem) parts of the plant was analyzed using Student’s t-test. Aphid fauna included: Cabbage Aphid [CA; Brevicoryne brassicae (L.)], Green Peach Aphid [GPA; Myzus persicae (Sulzer)], and Turnip Aphid [TA; Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbach)]. The GPA developed small population in comparison with CA and TA and was occasionally found. The population density of CA and GPA tended to show two peaks and, during flower initiation, population began to decrease. The average population growth rates of GPA and CA were 0.001 and 0.003, respectively. Homogeneity tests indicated that, at all sites and years, GPA showed reduced growth rate compared to CA. On average, 36 and 64% of CA and GPA populations were found on the lower parts of plants, respectively. This indicated that CA preferred upper part while GPA preferred lower part of the plants. The obtained results could be used to make a contribution to systematize the field monitoring of predominant aphids in canola crop.

The use of adjuvants enhances the insecticide efficiency and increases the persistence of insecticides. In this study, the effect of adjuvants on the toxicity of chlorpyrifos and cyhalothrin formulations were investigated under laboratory and field conditions. The comparative toxicity of two chlorpyrifos [(48% Emulsifiable concentrate (EC)] formulations (Dursban and Pyrifos El Nasr), two cyhalothrin (5% EC) formulations (Halothrin Gold El Nasr and Lambada Mox) and two adjuvants (Top Film and Tritone K) were examined against the second and the fourth larval stages of Spodoptera littoralis. The effect of adjuvants on the toxicity of chlorpyrifos and cyhalothrin formulations were investigated under laboratory and field conditions. The results showed that Dursban exhibited the highest toxicity against the second and fourth larval stages of S. littoralis with LC50 values of 0.2 and 1.11 mg L-1, respectively. In contrast, Pyrifos El Nasr had the lowest toxicity against both larval stages. The results of joint toxic effect between adjuvants and insecticides indicated that adjuvants revealed potentiating effect on the toxicity of four insecticide formulations as co-toxicity factor values were greater than +20. Mixing the adjuvants with chlorpyrifos and cyhalothrin formulations in spraying tank before application of insecticides in field strongly increased the toxicity and the persistence of insecticides. Cyhalothrin formulations mixed with adjuvants gave continued significant mortality through 21 days, while chlorpyrifos gave continued significant mortality through 15 days of treatment. However, chlorpyrifos and cyhalothrin formulations without mixing with adjuvants gave significant mortality through 3 to 4 days of treatments. These results indicated that adjuvants increased efficiency and residual effect of chlorpyrifos and cyhalothrin commercial formulations. Therefore, the adjuvants can be used for reducing the number of applications in the season and the application rates of insecticides.

The fruit set rate and yield of pear are commonly low due to insufficient pollination, as the species is unattractive to honeybees. To improve honeybee foraging behavior for the pollination of Dangshan pear (Pyrus bretschneideri cv. dangshansuli), nine methods were used to attract bees. A control treatment of colonies was fed with normal sugar syrup, while six other treatments were fed using sugar syrup mixed with Pear syrup, Gallic acid, Arginine (Arg), Lysine (Lys), Methionine (Met), or 8-Br-cGMP; plates containing Juvenile Hormone analog ZR-512, Brood Pheromone (BP), and Queen Mandibular Gland Pheromone (QMP) were placed inside the hives of another three treatments. Pollination efficacy was compared using the pollen load weight and quantity of foraging bees. The peak time of pear pollen gathering was 10:00–11:00 regardless of treatment. The pear pollen load weight per day was increased by all nine treatments. Pear pollen load weight per day was 49.11 g in the control. The QMP treatment yielded the heaviest pear pollen load weight per day (77.56 g), followed by the 8-Br-cGMP (64.45 g) and BP treatments (64.20 g). The percentages of pear pollen weight and quantity in the total pollen per day were both highest in the BP treatment (80.23%, 87.27%), followed by those in the QMP (79.32%, 86.74%) and Lys treatments (76.25%, 85.81%). In conclusion, BP was the most effective treatment for improving honeybee pollination behavior in the pear orchard, while other treatments, including Arg, Lys, 8-Br-cGMP, ZR-512, and QMP, could also be useful.

Growing demand for wheat grain with optimal technological parameters results in looking for the possibilities of accurately meeting the plant needs. Environmental conditions in the surroundings of germinating grains can be improved by application of humic preparations. Qualitative features of grain can be also changed by foliar application of potassium, which is the activator of enzymes catalysing synthesis of proteins. The aim of the study was to assess the effect of seed dressing with Humistar (12% of humic acids, 3% fulvic acids) and foliar application of Drakar (31% K2O, 3% N) on the spring wheat yield and qualitative features of the grain, namely, 1,000 Kernel Weight (TKW), Hectolitre Mass (HM), Grain Glassiness (GG), Falling Number (FN), total Protein Content (PC), Wet Gluten content (WG) and Sedimentation Value (SV). The experiment was established in the randomized blocks design in a soil classified as Mesic Typic Hapludalfs. The effect of the applied preparations on yield was non-significant, but it was favourable for grain quality. Application of Humistar resulted in an improvement of TKW, HM, GG, PC, WG and SV as compared with the control. Results of the application of Drakar were similar to Humistar in affecting HM, WG and SV, and in the case of PC, the result was even better. The effect of Drakar on GG, although favourable compared to the control, was smaller than after the application of Humistar. Seed dressing with Humistar or foliar potassium fertilization with Drakar are agrotechnical methods that can improve the qualitative features of milling wheat grain.

The studies carried out over 2010-13 involved a static field experiment initiated in 1999 at Brody Research Station of the Poznan University of Life Science, Poland. The soil tillage systems for winter wheat were compared on a soil classified as Albic Luvisols. The aim of experiments was to evaluate impact of ploughless soil tillage on some soil physical, chemical, biological properties and winter wheat productivity parameters. Tillage systems included: Conventional Tillage based on moulboard ploughing (CT), Reduced Tillage with a stubble cultivator (RT), and No-Tillage (NT). The soil tilled under RT and NT recorded higher values of water content and soil bulk density, especially in the top layer. On the other hand, in the 10-20 cm layer, soil bulk density was significantly higher under CT than under RT and NT. Soil penetration resistance was lower under CT than under RT and NT from 0 to 20 cm depth. However, soil penetration resistance was consistently higher under CT than under RT and NT from 21 cm to 30 cm depth. Organic C and nutrient elements tended to accumulate in the surface horizons under RT and NT compared with CT. Enzymatic activities were found in the more superficial layers of soil under RT and NT than under CT. The grain yield decreased by 6.9% under NT compared to CT, and ranged over a similar level under RT and CT. The decreased yield in NT probably resulted primarily from a lower number of ears per unit area. In our opinion, in the future, more research is needed to determine the role of changing soil properties over time in crop yields, and no-tillage system needs to be improved to secure plant establishment and crop yield.

The anatomical and epidermal characteristics, as well as the physiological response, of 'Colombia' ecotype cape gooseberry plants treated or untreated with foliar applications of kaolin at 2 irrigation levels (well-irrigated plants vs. water-stressed plants) were evaluated. Relative Water Content (RWC), stomatal density, and chlorophyll index were reduced under water stress. Water stress increased leaf temperature and trichome density. In water-stressed plants, the foliar application of kaolin decreased transpiration rates, leaf temperature, trichome density, and leaf thickness. Kaolin also improved the plant height, total plant dry mass, water-use efficiency, and increased stomatal density in water-stressed plants. The results suggest that kaolin may be a useful tool to mitigate the negative effects of water stress and may improve the efficient use of water in cape gooseberry plants with especial water conditions.

Fig trees are threatened by the attack of Fig Mosaic Disease (FMD) on leaves and fruits caused by viruses of several genera. Shoot-tip culture is a convenient method for viral sanitation. For this purpose, a reliable protocol for rapid in vitro propagation was developed with shoot-tips of three major Tunisian local fig (Ficus carica L.) varieties Zidi (ZDI), Soltani (SNI), Bither Abiadh (BA) and one rare and recalcitrant caprifig Assafri (ASF). For each in vitro step, four Murashige and Skoog (MS) media with different combinations of plant regulators were used. The best initiation of shoot-tips with sizes 0.5, 1 and 1.5 mm was obtained on medium M3 containing 0.2 mg L-1 Benzyle Amino Purine (BAP), 0.1 mg L-1 1-NaphthaleneAcetic Acid (NAA) and 0.1 mg L-1 Gibberellic acid (GA3). The variety (SNI) showed the highest shoot-tip initiation potentialities for the establishment step with 100% of explant development rate. The shoot multiplication and plantlet development were provided by medium M6 with 0.5 mg L-1 BAP and 0.1 mg L-1 NAA. The highest average of leaf number increase (92 leaves per plant) and proliferation rate (16.91 branches per plant) were reached on M6. The best rooting rate (83.34%) was favored by medium M11 with half-strength MS and 1 mg L-1 Indole-3-Butyric Acid (IBA). Ex vitro rooting of fig plantlets was successfully performed on moist peat with success rate of 90%. The acclimatized fig vitroplants showed high establishment rates (92.1%) and rapid growth on substrates S1 composed by peat without symptoms of virus diseases or morphological abnormalities.

The present work developed an efficient plant regeneration and propagation system via direct organogenesis for Morinda officinalis How., a valuable endangered medicinal plant. The effects of explant types on shoot induction, plant growth regulators on shoot proliferationand elongation and the subsequent rooting ability of shoots were examined. Among the various types of explant, direct shoot proliferationwas successfully achieved from shoot tips and nodal stem segments with around 95% of the explants producing approximately 5 shoots per explant after 8 weeks of culture on optimal medium. On the other hand, leaf and internodal explants did not produce any shoots. The most effective cytokinin on shoot proliferation was 6-benzyladenine. When the concentration of 6-benzyladenine was at 1.0-2.0 mg L-1, a high mean shoot number (about 5 shoots per explant) was achieved. Shoot elongation was obtained satisfactorily by transferring the shoots to Murashige and Skoog basal media containing 2.0-3.0 mg L-1 gibberellic acid-3 within 2 weeks. Rooting was 100% on half-strength Murashige and Skoog medium containing 0.2 mg L-1 indole-3-butyric acid after 3 weeks of culture. The plantlets were acclimatized in the greenhouse and subsequently transferred to the field with 90% survival rate.

The effects of different storage temperatures and times on germination rate, MalonDiAldehyde (MDA), SuperOxide Dismutase (SOD), PerOxiDase (POD) and Catalase (CAT) activities in Jatropha curcas L. seed were investigated. The results showed that germination rates of seeds stored at room temperature and 4°C for 1 month was significantly higher than those stored for 3 months at -20 and -80°C. MDA contents increased significantly for 1 and 3 months storage with decreasing temperatures. SOD activity decreased gradually down to -80°C for 1 and 3 months storage. POD activity fluctuated slightly for 1 month, but increased apparently for 3 months storage with decreasing temperatures. CAT activity declined rapidly as storage temperatures decreased, particularly for 3 months storage. A significant interaction of storage temperatures and times was found for the activity of SOD and POD, and there was no significant interaction on germination rate, MDA content, and CAT activity. Electrophoretic analysis showed that the observed changes of SOD, POD and CAT isoenzyme bands under different storage temperatures were consistent with the changes of enzyme activities assayed in extract solutions. These results suggested that SOD, POD, and CAT may be involved in regulating the level of reactive oxygen species under different storage temperatures and times.

Keeping constant all agronomic factors except temperature is a way to follow Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs) expression. Three different sunflower hybrids derived from the cross between an inbred line, Cms HA 89, and three different restorer inbred lines, with resistance, susceptible, and normal reactions to drought, were produced. In order to investigate the impact of temperature on protein accumulation during achene filling phase, they were cultivated in two different geographical areas: Karaj in Iran and Udine in Italy. Total protein content and structural polypeptide fractions of Seed Storage Proteins (SSPs) were determined. The analysis of HSPs was carried out by means of lab-on-chip capillary electrophoresis. It was revealed that protein accumulation in achene occurs at a greater rate during the achene filling phase, i.e. approximately 9-25 days after pollination, in all examined hybrids. Besides, the presence of a polypeptide band of 17.7 kDa supposed to be of small Heat Shock Proteins (sHSPs) family was recorded in all three hybrids grown up in hot and arid environment, Karaj, which implied independent sHSPs expression from the paternal restorer line.

Cyclotides are small disulfide-rich proteins that have the unusual feature of a cyclic backbone. Cyclotides have a range of interesting biological activities and are found in a variety of tropical plants from the Rubiaceae, Violaceae, Cucurbitaceae and Fabaceae families. We have cloned and characterized cyclotides in Viola modesta, a Viola species native to western Asia, which was collected from the Kurdistan Province of Iran. Fifteen cyclotide sequences were obtained using homology based PCR strategy. Sequence analysis showed that 14 of them had continued open reading frames and showed high level of similarity to cyclotide genes from other species of the Violaceae. After analyzing the full endoplasmic reticulum signals of V. modesta cyclotides, two conserved sequences, AAFALPA and ATAFALP, were detected. Analysis of isolated cyclotide sequences showed that they all belonged to bracelet family and were separated into two subclasses. Phylogenetic analysis of cyclotide genes from V. modesta and other Viola species revealed that most V. modesta genes showed close relationship with their homologs from the Violaceae, while the V. modesta genes formed two separate clades. Transcription analysis by semi-quantitative RT-PCR revealed that Vmcyc1 and Vmcyc7 were differentially expressed in all tested tissues including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds, peduncles, and capsules with the highest transcript level in the capsules.