مجله الهیات تطبیقی
پیاپی 14 (پاییز و زمستان 1394)

The purpose of this article is to study the philosophical foundations of the "Sabean Mandaean" religion in order to extract their educational teachings. The research method is analytical and deductive. Using this method, the anthropological, epistemological, and axiological foundations of this religion have been studied. The main sources in this study are the Mandaean holy books, especially Genza Rabba and Drasha ed Yaḥya.
Sabean Mandaean is a religious ethnic living peacefully alongside of Karoun, Dejla and Fourat rivers. For more than two thousand years ago, due the tension with Jews, they migrated from their main homeland, Palestine, to Mesopotamia and Khouzestan.
The holy Quran has included them three times as the third great Devine Religion. Some of the Islamic scientists know them as ahlol-kitab, namely persons having a holly religious book. Their holiest religion book is Ganza Rabba which means the great treasure and that has written in Mandaean.
In this religion, the existence is superior to the nature that created by God (Hai Rabbi). The most important characteristics of Hai Rabbi are the unity, Greatness and Creativity. The highest level of existence is called Alma Denhora (the world of light or the heaven), and the lowest level is called Alma Dehshokha (a world of darkness or hell). Human is consisted of two parts; Material (peghra or body) and immaterial (Roha and Neshmetha). The truth of human is his Neshmetha or the spirit which is on the contrary to the peghra which is immortal and eternal. The human is dignitary, free and responsible and has a Devine nature.
Knowledge in Mandaean religion is important and has priority over faith and action. Manda, in its origin, means knowledge or cognition. Illiteracy is a great damage. Human being has miscellaneous tools to gain the knowledge. Feeling, heart and wisdom (Mana) are the tools that God has given the human beings. The origin of the Mandaean values is God (Hai Rabbi). And various values came in as commands in the Mandaean holy books, with great emphasis on cleanliness and peace and coexistence.
Education in Mandaean religion is praised and important. Education is a religious duty for everyone and it is not limited to the certain age and it has emphasised for both boys and girls at the same time.
Because there is clean spirit (Neshmetha) in the human, the Mandaean does not recommend physical punishment and inhumane methods in any way in education. In contrary, Doctrine of Mandaean recommends religious teachers to take the appropriate skills and teaching methods for educating people.
The ultimate goal of education in the Mandaean is “Back to the world of light (Alma denhora) to approach to the God (Hai Rabbi)". To achieve this goal ,there are many objectives such as reflection and thinking, Purity , faith and good deeds and self-purification. Also in this article, educational principles have been extracting from their philosophical foundations. The article offered teaching methods based on the Mandaean religion and in the end it was pointed out features of Education Mandaean.

Religion and monotheistic beliefs are the bases of the human societies and culture and communications are the most important manifestations of these bases. About the three elements of religion, culture and communications, which act as the distinctions of human beings from other beings, and the relationship among them, many discussions have been occurred. In this article, the definitions offered for religion, culture and communication and their relationship, using the literature governing the Intercultural Communication and Cross-cultural Communication as two subjects discussed in the field of Cultural Communication and International Communication, have been reviewed and tried through a novel method to promote the level of religion from a concept usually seen as something such as race, ethnic, identity and life style under the title of international communication and cultural communication to a much higher position and place it under the title of interreligious communication. Following creation of a new field of study, many of the scholars and thinkers who are concerned about that field get together and focus of its issues and try to offer definitions and divisions about the subject. Later, after accumulation of scientific materials about different issues in the field, the human knowledge in that subject starts to develop further and in a more organized way. In this regard, first, the preferred definitions of religion, culture, communication, and Interreligious Communication will be offered. Accordingly, every society includes a meaning structure which is called culture and communication would act as an interaction tool in this system whose task is coding and decoding. Religion is considered the origin of culture and the director of communication. Based on these primary definitions, the interreligious communication is defined as: the relationship between or among the monotheistic religions based on the common understanding of religious concepts, and by highlighting the similarities in order to create an international society having a general religious discourse with no tension but peaceful coexistence. According to this definition, the interreligious communication can be regarded as a vast field of specific inter and cross cultural communication and by focusing on it and after creating its necessary literature it is possible to mix the three fields of interreligious cultural studies, interreligious dialogue and religious cross cultural communication and cause to strengthen and deepen the relationship among different religions. The most important purpose of interreligious communication in present era is to firstly emphasize the similarities of religions in both attitude and action using the three central elements of common understanding, highlighting and institutionalizing and secondly after locating the tension backgrounds and removing them and thirdly by following a proper strategy for appropriate communication, the road for a better and more purposeful communication will be paved. The communication should be based on strengthening the similar points rather than convincing the followers of other religions. To achieve this purpose various tools in three levels of authority, elites and common people should be applied. The most important obstacle for interreligious communication is the radical and extremist movements in different religions. Also the most important barrier for interreligious cooperation in cross religious communication is having a pluralistic conception towards such cooperation. Islamic republic of Iran as the pioneer in promoting religious attitude in present era and because of having successful experience in putting religious patterns into practice and in social life, should take action in making proper policy to develop the three fields of structures, programs and human sources for the purpose of interreligious communication.

One of the questions that arises in religious discourse, is how to explain the concept and sources of joy in human life . This article examines the different debates and the same discussions on the concept of happiness in New Testament and the Quran. However this study is a basic research, for this reason, it checks only sources of happiness and joy in higher level. And we do not discuss in this article about the culture of joy and tools of happiness in life . In the New Testament, religious and spiritual happiness and reaching salvation are obtained through the belief in Christ's ransom. The man at first is born with original sin and Christ's sacrifice reconciles him with God. Thus, the grace of Christ plays the most important role in salvation and Christian joy. In the teachings of the New Testament, birth of Christ, the advent of Christ, faith in Christ, the ransom of Christ and the resurrection of Christ, the miracles of Jesus Christ and enduring the difficulties on the way of Christ all can create happiness and joy. And this joy will be complete by reaching the Divine Kingdom that is the purpose of the life of a Christian. In this view, man has no role in her fate and there is no talent in him to take him to perfection, God's grace reaches men solely through Christ and the law does not have any roles in human redemption. From the perspective of the Quranic verses it's wrong to have such a conception about man. True spiritual joy in Islam is explained as: Human is the submissive slave of God and God is people's lord. Humans are completely free to reach perfection, redemption and happiness, and this freedom means subjugation to God. Human freedom increases by obeying God, and with having love toward the God's true servants one can reach the top grades. Having a free will can lead to the infallibility and infallibility can take the man to see the Devine Kingdom. Man can see the Devine Kingdom, and there he can realize that the human is the mirror of God and when je understand this tremendous talent, he reaches the true happiness. But a Muslim can be placed in this road only if he obeys the religious laws. In this attitude the world's hardships and shortcomings are not considered as the causes for sadness rather a Muslim would regard them as the God's exams to take him to the perfection and in this way he can get tolerance through remembering God and reciting His verses.

In the current world, the comparative study of religions is one of the ways which provides peace and coexistence and makes the believers of religions closer together. Finding the common notions could be a foundation for the dialog among the monotheistic religions and a background to eliminate the misunderstandings and to reach common point of views. The cornerstone of all the common efforts of the believers to the religions is to reach to an understanding for building a better world where true peace is established.
In this way, the article seeks to verify the notion of positive thinking in the religious resources of Islam and Christianity. In order to understand the foundations of the religious teachings and to provide a better understanding among the believers, then, the article tries to discover the common fundamentals and the opposing points about the positive thinking in these two religions. We firstly try to explain the notion of positive thinking in Islam and Christianity and then to offer the recommended ways in both religions to create and to strengthen this way of thinking. As the different parts of the New Testament is not theologically homogeneous, this collection has been verified and explained in four different parts: Three Gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke), John's thoughts, thoughts and ideas of Paul and finally the Christian sects and late scholars.
The findings of the survey show that the notion of positive thinking in the monotheistic religions of Islam and Christianity can be traced back by the keyword "Hope". It is only the hope which could finally create the soul of positive attitude and thinking inside the humankind. This hope is accompanied by the prospect and causes the humankind to work hard to reach his/her goals. However, there are some opposing points in these two religions about the basic student, University of Esfahan[1] Professor, Research Institute of Hawzah and University foundation of this true hope: From the Koran viewpoint, the main foundation of the hope is God (Ensheghagh /6) and the human is obliged to follow his worldly goals in accordance with this foundation as well as faith to God and avoidance of committing sins (Towbeh /71). In other hand, the basic foundation of hope in the Three Gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke) and the teachings of Paul is the promise of a coming Kingdom. Although there are some opposing views about the meaning of this as well as the ways to attain this hope, this hope is generally related to the purpose of human life and his/her life hereafter. The Christ, in the John's thoughts, is the source of hope and everybody, believing in God, must also have hope to Jesus Christ. Effects and functions of such hope are strengthening the spirit of love and kindness to others.
Hence, in Christianity, the hope and positive thinking about the future, along with good deeds, reflects different viewpoints. In the other hand, in Koran, this is faith to God and fulfilling the Sharia orders which ignite and strengthen this hope and way of thinking. This is the base that continues nowadays with Vilāya and the love for Ahlulbeit in the Shiite views.

According to the teachings of the Shia, Imam Ali (AS) has unique features by which he earned the merits of becoming the successor to the Prophet (pbuh) as the Imam and Wali. One of the most important of his features is his similarity to the Jesus as one of the greatest prophets before Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). This similarity was first mentioned in some Islamic traditions, especially the ones narrated through Shiite Isnad in interpretation of the verses 57-59 of the Surta Az-Zukhruf. In these traditions, the Prophet has regarded the Position of Imam Ali (AS) in his nation the same as Jesus's Position among the Israel. The Quran has cited the inimical arguments of the Arab infidels against this prophet's saying: they considered the worshiping of their own gods better than accepting Prophet's remark in equating his cousin with Jesus (pbuh). By resorting to this remark, the infidels regarded worshiping their own gods more preferable than deifying a man. Therefore, the first and most prominent similarity between Imam Ali (AS) and Jesus Christ (pbuh) is attributing divinity to Imam Ali (AS), at least by some of his extreme lovers. The Quranic command saying: "Do not Exaggerate about your religion… .(Quran 4:17) refers to the Christian extremism in deifying Jesus, But soon word Ghali was borrowed from this verse and used to refer to Shiite extremists. Moreover, the Quran (4: 159), talks about the advent of Jesus Christ to his followers before their death .The same concept has been mentioned in Shiite traditions about Imam Ali (AS), according to which, he is believed to be present beside every dying Muslim individual. This appearance of Imam Ali (AS) would remind us the idea of Imam Ali's (AS) return to this world. Thus, the return of Imam Ali (AS) to this world is the third similarity between Imam Ali (AS) and Jesus Christ (PBUH). Not only the return of Jesus has been mentioned in in the Christian tradition as the one manifested to the apostles after his ascension and also his return as the Messiah, the savior of the world, but in the Islamic tradition and the Koran (AZ-ZUKHRUF: 61) it is also pointed out that Jesus's (pbuh ) return is certainly a sign for resurrection. It is so interesting that in Shiite commentaries under this verse and other Quranic verses (Naml:2) the return of Imam Ali (AS) to the world has been mentioned as eschatological signs. This return happens due to the high position of Jesus Christ and Ali (AS) both of whom in Christian and Shiite traditions possess the two concepts of ascending and descending. It is narrated from Imam Ali (AS) that he described himself as having the quality of return. The reflection of such remarks among the Shiite extremists led to the denial of Imam Ali's death and his divinity. The extremists who were known as Nasiris expressed the divinity of Imam Ali (AS) in the form of trinity and in Baktashi Sufism; this concept has been elaborated as the three hypostases of Allah, Muhammad and Ali. In Ibn Arabi mysticism the divinity has been manifested in ultimate authority he considers for both of them. Besides all these similarities, the miracles done by Imam Ali (like: the revival of the dead, speaking in the cradle, and rising in the clouds) are all similar to the ones narrated for Jesus Christ. Furthermore, Imam Ali's moral features like his chivalry and piety match the qualities of Jesus inferred from his biography.

The Holy Koran, the last scared scripture sent by Allah, recommends, based on the verses frequency, seven methods to communicate with the Christians. The important point about these seven models that may be considered interesting is their sequence as they may be applied one after another in the following order:1-Affirmation of some of the Christianity foundations (the Holy Bible, Jesus Christ, Saint Mary and the Apostles)
2-Invitation to unity
3-Annunciation of blessing for the true Christians
4-Warning and threats to the Christians
5-Invitation to consider the truth by the Christians
6-Explanation of the infidel Christians and their damnation
7-Order to mubahala (debate and mutual cursing) and wage war against the Christians.
These are the seven methods, based on Holy Koran, which are considered to be used in communicating with the Christians:1- The background for an efficient dialog is firstly based by affirmation of some of the Christianity foundations such as the Holy Bible, Jesus Christ, Saint Mary and the Apostles. The existence of a constructive and unifying dialog can have a vital role to directly eliminate the world problems; but this needs some suitable backgrounds. One of these backgrounds is the dialog based on the common matters. Relying on lots of common positive issues such as beliefs, ideas, aspirations, pains and common feelings, the humankind can establish such a dialog.
2- In the second phase, the Holy Koran, accepting some beliefs of the Christians, invites them to unite with Muslims based on the monotheism and rejection of idolatry and idolatrous in order to reach a common understanding in communicating with each other.
3- After a Christian receives confirmations about his/her religious ideals by Islam and is ready to unite with Muslims based on the Monotheism, there is an announcement of divine mercy and forgiveness, explained by Holy Koran.
4-In this phase, if the Christians refuse to accept the truthfulness of Islam because of prejudice, jealousy or ignorance, the Holy Koran warns them to follow the realities of their religion and to be united with Islam based on the monotheism.
5-If the warning is not followed and accepted, the Holy Koran invites the Christian, based on the logic to consider their belief system and wants them to rethink with common sense about what they ignore or believe superstitiously and to follow the divine path.
6- In this stage of communication, if the Christians continue to insist on their beliefs and ignorance, the Holy Koran warns them explicitly about the damnation, suffering and loss.
7- At the end, if the Christians do not abandon their beliefs and try to influence the Muslims by creating division and confusion, the Holy Koran orders to wage war against them. It then curses them and warns them about suffering in this very world.
Looking to these seven steps of communicating, it can be concluded based on the Holy Koran teachings that the pattern of the inter-cultural communication between Muslims and Christians is the monotheism and staying away from polytheism. The more this pattern is reinforced and highlighted, the more this closeness and communication will be constructive and efficient. The Holy Koran presents seven practices and solutions.
If the Holy Koran accepts and respects some of the foundations of Christianity (such as the Holy Bible, Jesus Christ, the Apostles and the chastity of Saint Mary) in these practices which are based on the monotheism and refusal of polytheism, it is because they are all centered around the monotheistic principles. Whenever there is a deviation from these principles, the Holy Koran warns and invites the people to consider their beliefs. It even orders explicitly to wage war to make the Christians return to the true path of divinity.
Based on these methods to communicate with the Christians which are affirmation of some of the Christianity foundations (the Holy Bible, Jesus Christ, Saint Mary and the Apostles), invitation to unity, annunciation of blessing for the true Christians, warning and threats to the Christians, invitation to consider the truth by the Christians, explanation of the infidel Christians and their damnation and order to mubahala (debate and mutual cursing) and wage war against the Christians, we can conclude that the basic principle governing all these methods is the monotheism and worshiping Allah. We understand that the Holy Koran loves and respects the people of the Book and the true Christians. It considers greatly Jesus Christ and the chastity of his virgin Mother and glorifies their names because they all worshiped Allah. The pattern for the inter-cultural communications is considered in the Holy Koran (Ale-Imran): Say: "O People of the Book! come to common terms as between us and you: That we worship none but Allah; that we associate no partners with him; that we erect not, from among ourselves, Lords and patrons other than Allah.[1]
This verse is addressed to the all of the People of the Book and invites them: O People of the Book! Come to common terms as .... It invites that the people unite and agree on one word and act based on this one word. We can conclude that this verse means: Let's all grab this one word and try to expand it altogether. The invitation explained in this verse is to refuse to worship other than Allah and is not a mere belief.
In brief, the messengers and prophets invite all the humankind to follow the way that their nature dictates them i.e. to follow the word of Allah and to judge based on the monotheism and in accordance with the Islamic criteria and for the Allah's sake. The criteria such as: 1- submitting to Allah, 2-expanding the justice and the equality of rights of life 3- the freedom in the will of competent and good deeds. This is not realized unless we can eliminate the roots of dispute such as subordination to non-right and domination of the powerful i.e. the weak accepting the cruelty of the more powerful. We all must accept that there is no Allah except Allah and no other rule except Allah's rule.
The Holy prophet of Islam (PBUH) invites the People of the Book to believe his revelation and to unite around the word of Allah. This is not an invitation to the just theoretical monotheism but it is an applied monotheism that has social effects such as expansion of justice and rejection of idolatrous.
In brief, if we consider the verses related to the Christians, we can conclude the ways the Koran offers in order to communicate with them. What has a vital importance in this communication is the monotheism and refusal of polytheism. The ways to attain this goal are the seven ones which we pointed out in the article

Although considered as one of the Hindu religions and despite some similarities, Jainism, due to its attitude towards soul and its origin, is placed somehow contrary to Hinduism. Jainism and Hinduism have many similar characteristic features, including the concepts of samsara, karma and moksha. However, Jain’s attitude to human nature and his final goal and the way to reach that goal distinguishes it from Hinduism. Despite huge complexities of Jainism, it can be said that soul (jīva) plays a critical role in this religion; respect to creatures, no matter in what rank they are (Ahiṃsā), is the main and fundamental rule of Jainism; this respect is derived definitely not from a materialistic aspect, but rather due to a soul which reaches a superior rank of human existence by passing through different worlds; therefore, Jainists, following specific ethical principles and going through severe physical austerities, as a result of which the effect of Matter (Ajīva) on the soul (jīva) is disappeared, can achieve the state of sincerity (Maqam e Kholus) and essence of being. This state has a godlike status in Jainism. However, achieving this feature will be examined by describing the issues relevant to this religion. Clearly, it will be explained by examining the concept of soul and its type and the relationship between soul/body and soul/deed, as well as the issue of incarnation and the way to salvation in this religion

" Right to life" as the fundamental rights of every person, from the beginning, has been important in the different schools of thought and religions, especially the monotheistic religions. In this paper, we discuss about "execution" and "abortion" as two of the most fundamental issues surrounding the "right to life", which has existed in human societies from the past to present. In Zoroastrianism, the punishment of "whip" has been more significant than other punishments, including the execution, however, in several cases, the execution is imported, such as eating human flesh, banditry, etc. Also the act of "abortion" is never excused or ignored and it is known equal murder. In Judaism, the Torah puts the execution as the punishment of manslaughter. Among other crimes based on Judaism punishable by death, include: polytheism, kidnapping, sodomy, etc. There are different opinions among Jewish scientists in the case of abortion. Some of them prohibited this act, except when the mother's life is in danger. In addition risk for the mother, some others allow abortion for the reason of genetic diseases as well, and some recognize right to abortion just for mothers. In Christianity, the laws are more moral than criminal and penal. Perhaps only in the case of apostasy, the execution is prescribed. However, in the thirteenth century, church announced death as punishment of heresy, so it could not be rooted in original Christian faith. In Catholics and Protestants view, the embryo, from the moment of conception, is the perfect man with the right to life. Therefore, abortion is prohibited and punishable by apostasy known. Of course, there are other opposite opinions between different Christian schools. In Islam, the execution as criminal law divides into three types: retaliatory execution runs against murder, the penalty execution runs against some crimes such as sexual assault, working against religion and social security, etc., and the sentence execution determined by religious ruler. Most of Shiite jurists believe that abortion is forbidden except when the mother's life is in danger and spirit of the fetus is not blown. At the end ,it should be noted that: 1.existing the punishment of execution in monotheistic religions does not mean low importance of human life in these religions, but rather the opposite, this punishment determined to safeguard the life of all members of society. 2. With the understanding that monotheistic religions pay special attention to the issue of "right to life" and spend efforts in this way, it can be result a general rule that "in all monotheistic religions perspective, whatever that takes away people's life or put it at risk, is condemned and prohibited".

The Jewish reformist effort is a modernist movement which began under the influence of Christian Enlightenment, the proponents of which asked for a series of reformation within the Judaism so that they could guarantee a modernist approach in Jewish thought and have new experiences.
Prior to that, the formation of Enlightenment in the eighteenth century Europe, along with the occurrence of the French Revolution, had caused the intellectualistic thoughts to spread. The scholars supporting intellectualism believed that the proving of everything even the religious propositions was applicable only through the intellect, they also emphasized on the motto of freedom and equality of all nations.
Such liberal ideas were the most inspiring for the Jews since by resorting to them; they could terminate a long period of hardship for the Jewish people. The Jewish modernist thinkers, following Moses Mendelsohn in the eighteenth century under the influence of Christian Enlightenment, announced that the admission of Jewish Doctrines should have intellectual bases and therefore rejected some of the traditional beliefs in their religion. Having modernist ideas, they asked for changes in some of the traditional beliefs such as Jewish Nationalistic ideas, and attributed the main cause of Jewish problems at that time to such ideas .
The present paper aims at introducing the Jewish reformist movement first and after mentioning its historical background, will elaborate on the significant views within the movement, then the most important challenges the movement faces in modern time will be explained. Here it will be mentioned that being totally different from traditional approach, these challenges are the outcomes of modern reformist commentaries toward religious sources. Some of the most important challenges mentioned here are:1- Women's religious and social functions
2- The homosexual problem
3- The Problem of Jewish and non-Jewish marriages
4- The problem of divorce
5- The admission ceremony
6- Circumcision
It will be concluded that, although some of these reformations in Judaism are helpful and influential and have helped the Jews to break the barriers of prejudice and to relate more freely with the world out of the Jewish circle, it has led to the spread of secularism among reformist Jews. Also, the influence of Christianity on the Jewish reformist views is undeniable in a way that in some cases, the modern beliefs have caused some of the recent Jewish generations to get attracted to Christian doctrines and practices and ignore their Jewish identity.

As a universal human phenomenon, religion is rooted in human nature, and human beings instinctively require a superior and supreme power. Besides this internal need for religion, attention to the meaning, function, and interpretation of religion has always been prevalent in the history of human thought from West to East, and scholars have always tried to comment on and analyze this fundamental issue of human life . From among the approaches that arose about the interpretation and explanation of religion, rationalism tendency—influenced by evolution—has stood up because in the establishment of religion, rationalism takes its genesis and evolution as manifestations of the evolution of human thought, and it takes the development and evolution of religion as equal. This approach considers religion as answer to the need of the cognitive need of human beings. In this anthropological approach, religion is the product of primitive human beings’ effort to identify objects and events in the surrounding environment. As a results, as the man’s knowledge of the world around him increases, the need for religion decreases .
Anthropologist like Edward Tylor and James Frazer have taken this view to the origin and evolution of religion. They emphasize on principles such as the bodily and cognitive unity of the mind, the survival principal, and the evolutionary intellectual pattern of human beings in order to interpret religion stages from animism and magic till monism and monotheism, which will eventually decline during the development of science .
Taylor regards anthropology as the best scientific method to achieve a universal theory to understand the origin of religion. Based on its psychological unity, religion in all times and places—despite its diversity—is a unique phenomenon and has an exclusive identity because the very existence of commonalities in all practices and customs of the people of the world is indicative of the basic similarity of the mind. According to Taylor, the whole world is also like a single country based on the fundamental principle of human intellectual and cultural development. So, any diversity in human species is not synonymous with diversity in kind, but it is the difference in the level of cultural evolution. This degree of cultural evolution can be found in all societies and, therefore, the cultural/cognitive evolution of human beings and the basic form of the human mind are all connected .
As a matter of fact, the religious and cultural evolution of primitive man to modern one is the evolution of human rationality. In his view, there are three methods to understand the howness of the evolution of human cognition: magical, religious, and scientific .
That is why Taylor differentiates between magic and religion. He takes magic not based on spiritual entities but on impersonal powers and forces. According to him, magic works in line with the principle of similarity and association, and because the things that are similar have a causal relationship with each other, so magic is pseudo-science, but it is rooted in false reasoning. Taylor’s view, especially that of religion and magic, has influenced Fraser to a large extent. On the word of Taylor, the belief in spirits that think and act like human beings abounds in in all religions. So, in his view, the essence of religion and religious myths is faith-animism. Therefore, Taylor has proposed animism as the source and origin of primitive religions, and he takes the following as the developmental stages of religion: animism, nature worship, polytheism, monotheism, and metaphysical thought .
The relationship between magic and religion is the key issue for Fraser. According to Fraser, the first and most important principle to understand magic and religion was that the life of primitive man centered around the struggle for life, such as killing animals by hunters. According to him, the founding reasoning principles for magic are two: (1) Anything can make something like itself or an effect resembles its cause. This principal is the very law of similarity. (2) The things that were in touch once will affect each other, even after separation. This principle is the very law of contact. Fraser believes that many religious practices and human traditions throughout the history emanated from this thought .
Fraser believed that the magical beliefs of primitive man was based on false reasoning, resulting from his ignorance and justifiable in accordance with the living conditions and performance of his early ancestors. So, magic may be like science but a false one, and that is why modern man does not buy it, for the world does not act in line with the pattern of empathy, contact, and resemblance that wizards appeal to. That is why religion replaces magic as its function declines. The fact of the matter is that magic is the very primitive and unsophisticated science through which early man wanted to control and possess material objects since both magic and science apply methods that are based on a coherent worldview—consciously and unconsciously—in order to achieve human goals. Fraser also considers the developmental stages of religion from magic to religion and eventually scientism and the scientific interpretation of facts .
This anthropological approach suffers from two fundamental points: (1) Lack of reliance on objective and historical data as well as proposed theories, which is a methodological issue in religious studies, (2) there is a content question because the presupposition that the elements, functions, qualities of all religions are identical, on the one hand, and lack of attention to metaphysical and sentimental dimensions of religion, on the other, are highly criticized by religious professionals .