فصلنامه پژوهشهای روستایی
سال ششم شماره 4 (پیاپی 24، زمستان 1394)

Poverty is an introduction to the many of social abnormalities and the main threat for each society. The success of poverty alleviation programs depends on identifying the poverty and its indicators behind the policymaking and implementation conditions. The unidimensional income-based approach in poverty analysis is one of the main failure causes of many national and international poverty reduction programs. In an alternative approach, instead of focusing only on the income measurement of wellbeing and poverty, the human capabilities such as illiteracy, malnutrition, child mortality, and so on is taken into consideration. Therefore, United Nations Development Program (UNDP), since 2010 presented a new multidimensional poverty index (MPI) based on the capability approach and Alkire and Foster (AF) method. This index consists of three dimensions including education, health and living standards, which is measured by 10 indicators. Due to the importance of accurate assessment of rural poverty for the success of anti-poverty programs, the aim of this study is to evaluate the multidimensional poverty in the rural areas based on the capability approach, and understanding its determinants. The results can help policy makers in providing a more comprehensive and precise image of rural poverty conditions and the strategies will contribute to combat this phenomenon.
This descriptive and analytical study was based on the 20% of 2006 Iranian Population and Housing Census’s raw data. The settled private household was the sampling unit and the stratified random sampling method was used in urban and rural areas of each county. The household was chosen as a unit of rural poverty analysis and MPI was measured in three dimensions involving education, health and standard of living by using AF method. Indicators were selected based on the UNDP’s MPI, Millennium Development Goals (MDG), items in Iran census questionnaire and literature review. The main determinant of poverty was evaluated by using a logic regression in the three categories of regional situation, demographic and household attributes as well as economic characteristics.
Findings: The results show that the incidence and intensity of poverty and MPI in Iran rural areas is respectively 21.4%, 31.5% and 0.07. The most deprivation was in assets indicator with 23.10% (households do not own at least one of: telephone, computer motorbike or car) and the main construction materials of the housing unit of more than 21% of rural households is sun-dried brick. Despite the fact that 20% of rural households have no member with completed 5 years of schooling, but only 5.4% households have school-aged child which is out of school in years 1 to 8. The status of rural households in terms of access to electricity, toilet and cooking fuel is relatively favorable. Furthermore, Sistan and Balouchestan and Mazandaran provinces respectively have the highest and lowest MPI in Iran rural areas. Studying the influential factors on the households poverty shows that: literacy, gender, education level, marital status, occupation and age of household head; source of drinking water supply and type of sewage disposal in the housing unit; number of children, number of literate members in household, geographical location and nationality of rural households have a significant effect on the poverty of rural households. The probability of being poor in the households with illiterate head in comparison to high school and college degrees respectively 81.1% and 87.7% is more .Poverty is more prevalent in the households with heads working in the agriculture, forestry, and fishing jobs. Moreover, ownership of residential units has no effect on the households’ poverty. Poverty is more widespread in the female-headed households compared to male-headed with about 56%. Furthermore, households with one or more disabled members are more likely to be living in poverty.
The incidence and intensity of multidimensional poverty is higher in the southeastern provinces with Sistan and Baluchestan as the poorest one. It is necessary to pay special attention to poverty alleviation policy targeting in national development plans and regional programs for approaching to sustainable rural development in these regions. According to the results, education has an important role in combating poverty and it is inevitable to promoting the education level of household head and facilitating access of school-aged children to education in poor and at risk of poverty households. Moreover, focusing on improving the source of drinking water and access to public water supply and sewage disposal networks is of particular importance in the deprived provinces. With respect to the more severe poverty in the southeastern provinces, assessing the relationship between multidimensional poverty and climate and geopolitical conditions of these regions can lead to identifying the other determinants of poverty.

Friedman and Weitz are among the theorists of the Rohout School who propose models such as rural-urban development within the framework of comprehensive rural development schemes; consider rural development beyond urban development and perceive national development as dependent on rural development. In this regard, sustainable human development as a step beyond sustainable development is accepted as the Universal Declaration of Development for the next century, emphasizing that not only development should be sustainable and persistent, but should stress the needs of the present human generation. In this regard, empowering rural people, especially young people in rural communities has a significant impact on achieving sustainable rural development. Here, empowerment refers to a process in which individuals are able to acquire autonomy, control and self-confidence; and empowered individual is one who possesses the components of empowerment including the sense of sufficiency, the right to select, the sense of being effective, the sense of meaningfulness, and finally the sense of trust in others. Education and awareness as a key element in the process of empowerment as well as achieving sustainable development is a very significant issue. In fact, it could be concluded that empowerment and education are interrelated concepts. Education is a process through which, individuals acquire knowledge, learn skills and develop their own attitude and beliefs in life. Thus, formal and public education that as a social institution encompasses an important part of human life, will certainly have a remarkable and effective role in this process. Identifying talents and creating necessary conditions for them to flourish in different areas and a harmonious and balanced human growth in intellectual, emotional, social and physical aspects are among the heavy responsibilities that education should accomplish. However, the questions posed here include: “Has education succeeded in having an effective role in empowering students?”,“Do policies and plans of this institution serve the accomplishment of such an affair especially for rural youth who by some means require more attention by the education system?” The main purpose of this research will be to explain the role and position of education in the process of empowering rural high school students. The research adopts a survey method using subjective indicators based on a questionnaire. With regard to the nature of the research topic and hypotheses, information needed to confirm or reject the hypotheses has been collected through objective data (Statistics Statistical Center of Iran and maps) as well as subjective data (questionnaires completed by students and teachers in rural secondary schools). In order to achieve the research objectives, based on the studies and theoretical fundamentals in this area a questionnaire with closed and open questions was designed. The results indicate that based on the statistical tests such as one-sample and independent t-test, according to rural students, the domestic public education system in different educational periods especially in secondary schools has not been able to create adequate skills for employment or employing and in other words an entrepreneurial spirit in students; and as a result it has been ineffective in this regard. In addition, according to rural students, not only ruralization has not reinforced and influenced rural students’ sense of local attachment but also has strengthened urbanization behavior among rural students. The results indicate that based on the statistical tests such as one-sample and independent t-test, according to rural students, the domestic public education system in different educational periods especially in secondary schools has not been able to create adequate skills for employment or employing and in other words an entrepreneurial spirit in students; and as a result it has been ineffective in this regard. In addition, according to rural students, not only ruralization has not reinforced and influenced rural students’ sense of local attachment but also has strengthened urbanization behavior among rural students. The results indicate that based on the statistical tests such as one-sample and independent t-test, according to rural students, the domestic public education system in different educational periods especially in secondary schools has not been able to create adequate skills for employment or employing and in other words an entrepreneurial spirit in students; and as a result it has been ineffective in this regard. In addition, according to rural students, not only ruralization has not reinforced and influenced rural students’ sense of local attachment but also has strengthened urbanization behavior among rural students. The results indicate that based on the statistical tests such as one-sample and independent t-test, according to rural students, the domestic public education system in different educational periods especially in secondary schools has not been able to create adequate skills for employment or employing and in other words an entrepreneurial spirit in students; and as a result it has been ineffective in this regard. In addition, according to rural students, not only ruralization has not reinforced and influenced rural students’ sense of local attachment but also has strengthened urbanization behavior among rural students.

Sociologist shave emphasized the role of women in development, and they believe that without their partnership, development will not be possible. Therefore, it is important in the economy of rural and agricultural sections, and attention to the participation and employment of rural women and also attempts to improvement Investigation effect of socio – economical components on rural women’s psychological empowerment, is considered as one of the necessities of stable development in this section. The experience of many countries shows that entrepreneurship is one of the most effective solutions for reducing unemployment. In so far as to escape from unemployment, the economy of developed and developing countries has revived with the help of entrepreneurship power and this has caused women to accomplish their capability and abilities in various fields in a short period of time and make majorchangesintheeconomic developmentof the country by entering the field of business. In Islamabad Gharb County, the women participation rate is so low.
In Islamabad Gharb County, the women participation rate is so low. That’s why, finding the most effective factors and facilities of women participation are That’s why, therefore in this research is mainly concentrated on Investigation Effect of socio – economical Components on Rural Women’s Psychological Empowerment in Islamabad Gharb conty. In order to find some solution for enhancing their role in family and society economics.
The study has used a surveying methodology and research society includes rural women in Islamabad Gharb county; from which 161 cases were selected based on Cochran's formula and a randomized sampling method. Data collection tool was a structured questionnaire which their validity were verified by a group professors and experts development rural, socio psychology an extension agricultural. The reliability of the questionnaire was tested during a pre-test process through which 30 questionnaires were completed by rural women. Cronbach's alpha test calculated for factors facilitator development rural women’s psychological empoerment section which results were 0.90 (α=0.90) respectively. These showed that research tool benefits from a high capability to gather data. SPSS20 software for descriptive data was used.
Finding: The results showed that 56.5 percent of studied women were highly psychological component. Also, the effect of socio – economical component on psychological empowerment is significant at the level of 1 percent. The regression analysis implied that the independent variable of self- confidence, social relationship, state and individual marriage are the most important social and individual factors affecting psychological empowerment of the studied women which totally identifies 81 percent of psychological empowerment changes. The results also indicate the independent variables of sources ownership and saving was the most important economical effective components which identify 53 percent of psychological empowerment changes. The total model of research used multiple – regression indicated that the most powerful social – economical independent variable which identify psychological empowerment of women.
Today, countries and international organizations have concluded that the development of Income and increasing the skills of women, have a direct and positive impact on other aspects; Because on the one hand due to the economic development and create employment opportunities, and on the other hand, can improve the social, cultural and health to women and their families. The results in this regard suggests that the development of rural women psychological empowerment depend on many factors; That the present study, based on the results of the Regression analysis, the levels of source ownership and self- confidence were mostly effective variables. Consequently, according to the research results, the structural and educational evolutions are increase and to improve the women's psychological empowerment status and rural life. Also, based on the results of the study are presented in the following proposals such as:- To facilitate and encourage rural women and girls psychological empowerment, from all organizations, planners and managers should be required to finance and facilitate the establishment and development workshops in order to facilitate the acquisition assign.
- Training in order to remove cultural barriers, particularly in the areas of economic management family, Women's knowledge about their rights and the need to educate girls to the presence of more and more women in the process of rural development will be necessary.
- It is recommended that non-governmental organizations and authorities working with small actions and projects in the field of motivation to participate in economic activities can play an important role in empowering women, especially in rural areas as well.
- In addition, since only 14.9 percent of rural women have high confidence, thus policies to promote the spirit of self -confidence among women is very effective and necessary. Also according to the results, if women have the backing of savings, the economic situation will be better. Therefore, encouraging women to be more savings strategy is to improve the current situation.
- Finally, it is recommended that appropriate strategies for identifying sustainable income-generating jobs, and creating incentives for economic activity in rural women in order to create enabling them to be done.

Division of governance at various levels has led to proliferation of decision making arenas in different countries. Thus, proportion of women in areas of decision making divisions expanded in micro and macro levels of governance. Participation and role - playing of women in local level of governance had begun and developed in the most of the world including developed and developing countries in recent years. According to experts, this kind of governance in terms of ease of access and availability, closing to daily life, less competition, high probability of success and low risk of failure is considered as a field of making decisions which is suitable for women. Because of reasons above, female role – playing and participation in local government has been more than national level in most countries.
According to researches which are carried out about rural community of Iran, traditional gender relations and stereotypes defines women’s behaviors and actions. So, a kind of gender division of labor has been formed which determines strict norms and unchangeable gender roles. It means that in one hand, presence and role-playing of women in private and limited sectors such as family has been established, therefore rural community accepts it completely. On the other hand, participation of women in making important decisions of family is doubtful. So, there are various stereotypes which protect remaining women in a low level of role – playing and also condemned effective participation. In addition other findings about female participation in rural public affairs demonstrate that due to persistent gender stereotypes in rural culture, female participation in public arena is prohibited, so men are prioritized to obtain important positions of rural management.
In Iran, Dehyari is a kind of local governance which controls villages or rural regions. They are managed by both Dehrayr and Islamic rural council. So, they are considered as a field of participation of women in public decision making in rural regions. Since has been established, except Qom, most of them managed by a significant number of women in all provinces of Iran. Female participation as a head of rural management in the context of rural conservative culture is a noteworthy issue which is studied in case of experience and concerns of female Dehyars in Isfahan province.
According to census, numbers of female dehyars has been increased during 4 past election of Islamic rural council. Numbers of women in the first election (2005) was 150 out of 11.000 in the country with the share of 1.4%. In the second election (2008) it rises to 400 out of 21.000 in all provinces. In third election (2012) 888 female dehyar have participated out of 24.627 in total. And in the last period (2014) 1554 women out of 29.792 have attended in all rural regions in Iran. Therefore, statistics demonstrate a rising trend of presence of women in rural management.
This event is important in 3 dimensions. At first, Dehyaris as a kind of local government can be considered as a progressive way which can lead women to upper levels of governance such as parliament in national level. After that in rural context, presence of volunteer women for candidacy and their tendency to entre to public arena shows increasing the confidence of rural women. At last electing women as an executive director by the rural council who is considered as representative of rural society is another aspect of importance. It means that rural community admits that filling managerial positions by women.
The main purpose of this research is observation this phenomenon directly in a natural field. So, this research seeks to benefit from qualitative research method in the context of grounded theory be directly assessed. Sampling includes 2 parts. The main sample of the study consists of 8 female dehyars who 4 persons of them were the first female Dehyar in their own regions. In addition, Complementary sample includes 11 members of the Islamic rural council in 4 rural regions.
Findings demonstrate that experience of being manager or dehyar for women has formed in context of male pattern work in rural culture. Therefore women have to work in a male patterns of work. In this situation, Despite, gradual institutionalization of female management in rural areas during long time, the unprecedented experience of them is not recognized by rural community. As a result experience of being dehyar for women is known as a conflicting experience both by community and women. So, the status of women as a powerful managers is spending a period of transition which is located between acceptance and rejection.

Soil is one of the most important natural resources of each country. Soil erosion as a threat to human welfare and even his life. In areas where soil erosion is not controlled, gradually eroded soil, its fertility lose.Soil erosion is not only poor and abandoned farms and the way much damage is irreparable and leaves, but the deposition of material in streams, reservoirs, harbors and is causing large losses to reduce their intake capacity .
Residents of the watershed for the production and land use decisions are heavily influenced by social and economic factors. In the developed world the role of agricultural subsidies, quotas and guaranteed prices is the particular importance. In the past there have been many examples of economic shocks that lead to tragic consequences such as soil erosion is unpredictable environment. Problems caused by the emphasis on increasing productivity, because many of the costs arise incurred are hidden or out in the community and outside the community imposed,. (Bvardmn et al., 2003).
Quri-Chay watershed is located in the East Village and at a distance of 20 kilometers from the border of Iran and Azerbaijan. Areas range from 00 35 ° 47 to 11 45 ° 47 'east longitude and 37 12 ° 39 42 21 ° 39' north latitude.
In this study, collecting information needed by various methods such as reviewing the documents, observation, interview, survey methods and rapid assessment of rural and questionnaires were used. In this study, these methods are combined together to determine the socio-economic conditions and livelihoods of the inhabitants of the watershed are used Quri-Chay. To verify the information contained in the documents of the health centers, departments of agriculture, natural resources and city of Parsabad and feasibility studies to identify watershed of Quri-Chay in Ardebil.
In order to verify the information and documents obtained information on the sources of income, expenses, household status, migration and due to high costs, long time needed, the unavailability of all people and not allow the overall survey, three quarters of the population (Surrey strong Ahmed Khan, Mohammad Jalil, Mashhad Ali) as samples and using a sample survey and questionnaire were evaluated designed by people (265 questionnaires) and the results were extended to the entire area. Rapid Rural Appraisal techniques to identify the accurate, rapid and cost, in addition to decision-making and participatory planning are used. For exact identification and participatory planning in rural teapot rapid assessment was conducted in four stages: identifying the problems of the subject and scope, classification data, prioritizing the problems raised, the role of the economic and social land degradation in the Quri-chay. After gathering the information, a questionnaire research and analysis included descriptive statistics unprocessed data (frequency and percentage) and inferential statistics (Pearson correlation coefficient) into spss software and using tests Statistical will be analysis.
The results are consistent with previous studies and suggest that social and economic conditions prevailing in the basin has a direct impact on how land use. Therefore, taking into account soil erosion and land degradation as a physical process, and not only due to economic and social problems but also it can not be a comprehensive statement of reasons for degradation (Bvardmn et al., 2003).
The erosion and sedimentation and degradation in the area of economic and social problems caused by the limited Quri-chay one income residents living in the areas that are dependent on farming and agriculture, and that's a lot of pressure on the natural resources of the area into (Stokin and Morgan, 2001).And other natural factors of geology and topography is sensitive. So having an impact both on the field is destroyed and erosion can not be seen merely as a physical process.
In the Quri-chay due to irregular and unethical exploitation of pastures and soil and water resources and rangeland areas in drylands, especially on slopes, causing serious damage to vegetation, pasture area and as a result of destructive floods, types of erosion and gully erosion, is especially in areas that destroys the range of flat land in the area of output, (Nonya et al., 2008; Nepal, 2001).
The consequences of uncontrolled exploitation and destruction of natural resources in principle and ultimately cause instability in the region and increased migration and evacuation of the inhabitants of the villages that we see in the watershed pot of tea (Nonya et al., 2008).
It seems that the main problem areas of low family income and the lack of investment in the area So that only economic support livestock and dryland areas, is used to obtain the maximum profit and loss management and planning, the maximum pressure is on natural resources. As well as the economic and social problems can be a difficult area of rangeland management practices, lack of the plantation, the lack of agricultural inputs, the livestock range capacity, lack of infrastructure, low levels of literacy and education, which ultimately directly or indirectly to the destruction of their land. It seems that in order to prevent further land degradation and migration and depopulation of rural areas the main focus of proposed programs to increase revenue, offer new ways of living, in addition to agricultural based on the principles sustainable livelihoods, facilities infrastructure, educating residents about proper range management and agricultural practices in the field.

Sustainable utilization of natural resources have a determinant rols in rural community welfar and livelihoods. But they are in a critical condition due to their excessive use of them led to policy makers to adapt the policies for sustainable management of them that had been different consequences in different dimensions of farmers livelihood such as livelihod strategis. the aim of this research is to assess rural beneficiarie's perspective regarding the impacts of rangeland management projects on rural farmer's knowledge and activities regarding the livelihood strategies diversification in Mahneshan Township of the Zanjan Province.
This study was conducted using a quantitative paradigm and a descriptive- correlational research methodology. The study was done in rural communities in the Mahneshan Township, located in the Zanjan Province in the North West of Iran. These communities depended on sheep and goats holding and rangelands. Rangeland management projects either had been implemented or were implementing in their lands. A sample of 204 rural households (in 10 villages) out of 1280 rural livestock holders (in 24 villages) was randomly selected through a multi-stage sampling technique and structurally interviewed using a questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed according to the research objectives, previous studies, the documents related to rangeland management projects and an initial exploratory case study through semi-structured interviews with natural resources management experts of the township and the province. This initial study identified some factors, such as location and the activities of rangeland management projects, relevant rural livestock keepers, and the measures. The content and face validity of the instrument was established by a panel of experts consisting of agricultural extension, rural development and natural resources experts and academic members. A pilot test was also conducted with 30 rural households to assess the reliability of the questionnaire and testing its constructs using the Cronbach’s Alpha measure (the coefficient for different constructs between 0.75 and 0.95 showing appropriate measures consistency). Moreover, the construct validity analyses were utilized using the convergence validity (with the emphasis on the Component Loadings above 0.5, % of construct variance above 50 and the amount of Cronbach's Alpha), and through applying the Principal Components Analysis for categorical data (CATPCA). Finally, the quantitative data were analyzed using the SPSS software for Windows.
The analysis of demographic information showed that 98.5% of the respondents were male and 91.25% were married with the household size of 4.9 people. The respondents’ age ranged from 21 to 78 years with a mean of 52.1. Almost 54% were illiterate. Moreover, 48.5% of the respondents had membership in at least one of the locally based community organizations and only 6.4% in two institutions. All of the respondents had small scale farming lands (cultivating 3.6 hectare irrigated and 3.2 hectare rain fed arable lands as well as0.48 hectare permanent crops/ orchards on average).Land farming and livestock keeping were recognized to be the main job of 84% and the second job of 16% of the respondents. Overall, only 17.2% had a second job. In addition to land farming and livestock holding as the source of their livelihoods, some households had other income generating activities, such as selling dry fruits and home-made products to tourists and bee keeping. Moreover, 75.5% of the households weaved carpet as a complementary non-agricultural activity of their livelihoods. the results showed that this project had been more conservation approaches and they had been very low impacts on farmers livelihood strategies and that diversification. while considering the results, according to this actions by the policymakers will cause to increasing the farmers knowledge and actions and can be expected that being reduced pressure on rangelands due to single livelihood strategies diversification and reduction dependency on rangelands. a step wise regression analysis revealed that 29.5% of the impacts on rural households livelihood strategies diversification actions can be determined by five variables of livelihood strategies diversification actions by households, number of beehives, revival and conservation action by external organize, information obtain from extension films and radio. Also, A step wise regression analysis showed that fore variables of the participation can be determined by six variables of revival and conservation action, information obtain from journals, number of training courses, information obtain from extension television, can be determining 23.8% of all of the impacts on rural households livelihood strategies diversification knowledge.
Rangeland management policies and programs have paid less attention to the livelihood diversification of livestock holders dependent on rangelands in their projects. It is necessary to take appropriate actions for managing the factors can escalate unsustainable use of natural resources. One of these actions can be referred to the diversification of livelihood strategies to reduce dependency and overpressure on rangeland. There may be impossible to change the full dependency on rangelands to other activities due to the geographical location of the community, the constraints for linking to urban markets and the natural capitals available in the area. However, through diversification, it is possible to utilize alternative livelihood strategies as supplementary activities to reduce livestock number and overpressure on rangelands, increase employment, improve livelihoods and conserve natural resources. This approach is considered as a method for governing natural resources to use rangelands, arable lands and permanent lands sustainably. This perspective requires the support of external actors.