مجله تاریخ و تمدن اسلامی
پیاپی 20 (پاییز و زمستان 1393)

There are a few and scattered reports about the Conversion of Copts to Islam throughout the Muslim Conquest and al-Rāshidūn era. The historical sources almost keep silent on the matter and so make it difficult to examine and provide reliable statistics of the number of converts. Thomas Arnold, according to two narratives; John of Nikiu’s and Yaqubi’s concludes that many Egyptians in this period deliberately converted to Islam. In this article, by comparing both narratives with other reports, which are directly related to the types and amount of taxes, Coptic conversion in the historical sources as well as Arnold's claim will be considered. The historical sources, although scattered, shows that during the Conquest and al-Rāshidūn era, the conversion to Islam in Egypt was not widespread but sporadic.

A significant part of the hadithi movements among Shia of Kufa, in Imam Baqir (144 AD) era was formed as a group which summed up the supremacy of Imam Ali and the legitimacy of the caliphate of shiykhein. This Ziydi group have been in contact with Imamis and supported Ziyd ibn Ali after his arrival. After the uprising of Ziyd (122 AD), his supporters promoted his thoughts. In this paper, the relationship between this group and the Shia who supported nass (text) in Sadikayn’s era will be studied. It indicates that their intellectual commonalities caused the convergence of two groups and propagated the general teachings of Shiism. However, by the development of Ziydiyyah and their access to independent principles, they begin to dispute with Imamiyah, and both sects took actions against each other to retain and attract other shi’as.

Geographical situation of Arabian Peninsula induced the Iranians to benefit from a lucrative trade. They took over the trade in the peninsula by controlling the coastal cities and marine bottlenecks, as well as being aware of the trading rules and competent in seamanship. Furthermore, the vast area of Iran along with a plenty of minerals and favorable climatic conditions facilitated the cultivation of various products and manufacture of industrial goods for export to different regions, including Arabian Peninsula and led to having a prosperous market. In this paper the contribution of Iranians in the Arabic Peninsula trade and the development of its cities during 3th to 6th century A.H(9th to 12th AD), will be considered.

The fences and gates were very important for defending of cities in the Islamic middle ages. So, the kings and rulers paid special attention to reconstruct and reinforce them in various times. The fences and gateways of Cairo, as a famous capital in the middle ages and due to its strategic location and outstanding capabilities of geographical, political and commercial, were rebuilt several times. This paper has evaluated the construction, reconstruction and development of Cairo fences and gateways from the beginning of its establishment to the end of Salah al-din al-Ayyubi reign.

In 6th century AH, main lands of northern and northwestern Iraq and almost all Syria (except the parts under the control of Crusaders) were the territory of Sunni Zangi rulers who were in power for approximately a century and a quarter. In an overall look, the Zangids were succeeded to create a Sunni political and social authority. For obtaining this goal, they pursued a practical strategy that was a close correlation with the Sunni Ulama and helping them to be appointed in political, administrational and social positions. Consequently, the Zangids were benefited of Ulama`s administrational capabilities and also attaining more political legitimacy. It seems that this interaction was generally fruitful for both sides, Ulama and the Zangids, or for the people of the Court and the Madrasah.

The Safavid state’s policy had multiple approaches. This very feature makes it difficult to treat that state as a Shiite one with exclusively ideological functions. The multiple-criteria approach was exploited by the Safavids for the execution of their policies in both internal and foreign affairs as well. As the primary sources affirm, alongside the implementation of the Shiite doctrine (mađhab), there were also cases in their policies in which expediency took preference over the principles and realism took priority to the idealism. The article ahead, based on this attitude of the Safavids, examines the relations between the state and the Sunnis of Kurdistan. The findings show that throughout the 10thA.H/16th century, for the Safavid policy towards the Sunnis of Kurdistan, the mentioned main lines shaped the foundation for both the main framework and practice. The Safavid kings, rather than adopting strictly ideological policies and approaches, formulated the relations with the Sunni Kurds on the basis of political efficiency and interests, retaining Kurdish local governors (amīrs) within the realm of Iran, while preserving their own status in Kurdistan. Reciprocally, the structure of local power within Kurdistan itself had a dual functional role; it could serve and, at the same time, endanger interests of the Safavids. The performance of the existing forces within this structure suggests that the sectarian affiliation had no pivotal place in action and reaction on the part of the Sunni Kurds towards the Safavid state.

Naqshbandi is a moderate and shari’a abided order that attributed to Khwaja Baha al-Din Muhammad Naqshband Bukhari (717-791 AH). This order in the 9th / 15th century entered to Bosnia by the Ottomans. In fact ‘Iyni dadeh and Shamsi dadeh, the famous sheikhs of the order were the first representatives of the Naqshbandi order in Bosnia. Good behavior of the followers of this order, that most of them were the intellectuals, caused the development of Naqshbandi at different levels of the society and then the order became the most influential Sufi brotherhoods in Bosnia. So that, they are known as "the native order of Bosnians."During the 6th and 7th / 18th and 19th centuries, the network of the Naqshbandi's tikyah was established in various cities of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This order in the twentieth century, when the communist regime sought to destroy Islam and Sufism in the region, played an important role in dealing with them. So, it can be claimed that the defeat of the communists in the areas was the result of the presence and activity of Spiritual leaders of Naqshbandi .