مجله تاریخ و تمدن اسلامی
پیاپی 19 (بهار و تابستان 1393)

At the beginning of Islamic da’wah(inviting to Islam), Bani Fihr b. Malik, with two branches Harith and Muharib was considered as the oldest branch of the Quraysh tribe. The Fihr family as a tribe that lived on the outskirts of Mecca, was ambushing against other tribes. The present article seeks to answer a fundamental enquiry that whether we can analyse the actions of those sahaba that attributed to Bani Harith and Bani Muharib, in a tribal context. If this assumption proved, then it should be noticed that the behaviours and interest of the leaders of each of two tribes in the intellectual, social and political aspects, was intended to which currents and movements. This research is a descriptive- analytic study that used a table of frequency distribution to show that the most important features of Bani Harith are: being pioneers in early adoption of Islam and also their contribution in Muslims first migration to Abyssinia. But Banu Muharib had converted mainly after the conquest of Mecca by the Muslims. What is common in both branches of Bani Fihr is the warrior spirit. Some of the well-known commanders in al-Rashidun and Umayyad era, such as Abu ‘Ubiydah al-Jarrah, Habib b. Maslamah , ‘Uqbah b. Nafi’, Dahäk b. Qiys - the great conquerors of Syria, Asia Minor, Egypt and North Africa –belonged to this branch of Quraysh. They fanatically supported the idea of the sovereignty of Quraysh.

In Islamic medicine “phlebotomy” was considered as a way to prevent and treat certain diseases and one of the old applications that had been accepted by most of Islamic physicians. During the translation movement, Islamic scholars translated some books into Arabic with content of phlebotomy and later wrote and published many books about that. Phlebotomy as a term, in addition to medical usage has also found in Persian and Arabic poetry such as poems, proverbs and metonymies. Phlebotomy was performed on all people either rich or poor; so as the kings and caliphs appropriated some special days in a year for that. This article illustrate the meanings and practices of phlebotomy, its advantages and disadvantages, caring during and after phlebotomy, appropriate places and time, the instrument used, the law and orders for bleeders based on Islamic jurisprudence and also historically consider the subject.

The history of Jewish in Iran goes back to the ancient Babylonian captivity, Medes and Achaemenids. Despite their small numbers, they have been effective in Iran’s political, religious, scientific and economic life. Comparing to other places in Iran and other regions of the world, Kashan has provided a more favourable place for Jews to live and flourish for some centuries in a way that some Jews have called Kashan a Little Jerusalem or the galaxy of Jewish scholars and writers. This paper examines two assumptions about Jewish history in Kashan: the first notion talks about the Jewish presence in Kashan after the Babylonian captivity while the second one considers their migration from Spain and other European cities, especially after the Inquisition. The most important evidence for the first theory is kashan archaeological heritage, the oldness of Jewish community and their cemetery, Judeo-Kashani dialect (including Raji and Luftaii) and their oral tradition that contains ancient terms and language, including Medians. The evidence for the second assumption is the stories of Jewish and Christian travellers and Muslim historians.

Ra’iyyat, is used in three semantic fields in Islamic resources: it’s oldest and the most pervasive usage was known as one subordinates a ruler. This colloquial sense, based on the literal meaning of the word ra’i defined as shepherding and pasturing cattle, refers to an ancient tradition according to which the image of a ruler was a resemblance of a shepherd who protect and guide the people. In this sense, raiyyathas been the subject for many discussions and teachings in Islamic literature, especially in the books such as Adab al-Muluk (the king’s manners) and also official documents and letters in the first ten centuries of Islamic era. Since ra’iyyat had no right to meddle in political and military affairs, the second application of the term ra’ iyyat, means civilians, became prevalent in the Islamic literature and administration. According to many Islamic resources,in central and eastern regions of Islamic world, particularly, this term referred to classes of the king followers who were not allowed to carry weapons. The same definition of ra’iyyat became particularly prevalent in Safavid and Ottoman administration and ra’iyyat was used as a governmental term vis-à-vis “army”. The third definition of ra’iyyat was used to refer to the producers, taxpayers and farmers that often lived in central and eastern regions after the tenth century. Agricultural productions in main parts of the Islamic world were carried out on the basis of landlordism system and so vassals were the most important workers. In this article, along with explaining and comparing these three semantic fields, the historical evolution of the term in the related Islamic texts and also classification of ra’aya in Islamic administration will be considered .

Ghurar al-Siyar as a general history has been written in the early fifth century, and since its compilation, an argument formed about the author name and identity. The source of the different ideas was in the different spelling and diacritics of the title of the book as well as the name of author in its remaining manuscripts and also in the works of the biographers. Ghurar al-Siyar has been named as Ghurar Akhbār Mulūk wa- Siyarihim, al- Ghurar Fi Siyar Mulūk wa- Akhbārihim, Ghurar Akhbār Mulūk al- Furs wa Siyarihim, Tarikh Ghurar al-Siyar, Ghurar wa Siyar al Mulūk, Ghurar wa Siyar. Among these names, two names Tarikh Ghurar al Siyar and Ghurar Akhbār Mulūk al- Furs wa Siyarihim are more popular as the original names of the book. In addition to ambiguity in the name of the book, there are doubts about the book’s author, as his name has been recorded as AbūMansūr al Husiyn ibn Muhammad al-Mar'āshi(al-Tha'ālibī), AbūMansūr Husiyn ibn Muhammad al- Marghani al-Tha'ālibī, Husiyn ibn Muhammad al-Marghani and AbūMansūr 'Abd al-Malik ibn Muhammad al-Tha'ālibī al- Niyshabouri Among those names, most researchers agreed with Husiyn ibn Muhammad al-Marghani and AbūMansūr 'Abd al-Malik ibn Muhammad al-Tha'ālibī al- Niyshabouri This article aims to analyze the names that mentioned for Ghurar al-Siyar, and determined the real name of the book. Then, identity of the real author of the book has been specified by the study on the disputes on the identity of the author of Ghurar al-Siyar .

The bureaucratic system of Saldjukid era, with its functionality and legality, had a high position and importance. The situation was mainly achieved through capability and capacity of political elite who occupied the posts. In fact, they played an important role in strengthening and sometimes weakening it. Kamal al-din Muhammad Khazin was one of those elites who occupied a ministry position, because of his characteristics, abilities, individual skills, ideas and tendency to reform and successful experience in the bureaucratic system. He tried to resolve a part of political, economic and social crisis in Sultan Mas’ud reign (529-547 AH) by undertaking the reforms. Even though he made reforming efforts rapidly to tackle financial, social, and political challenges, Kamal al-din had to encounter his rival political elites. They considered his reforming efforts to be in disagreement with their own personal benefits and interests, and finally killed him .

Since the early10th/16th century, religion developed into an effective factor in the relationshipbetween the Safavid and Ottomans. Although the effect of the political and religious changes in Iran and establishment of the Shiite as official religion was influential; the internal developments within the Ottoman State had an important impact on the relationship between two governments. In fact, at the end of Bayizid II reign(918-926/1512-1520), the competition among the Ottoman princes to obtain the throne, influenced the process of developments in such a way that the Ottomans decided to use religion in their relationship with the newly established Safavid state. Salim I who had a little chance to get the throne, tried to prevail the power and so his father had to relinquish the throne. After seizure of power by Salim I, in addition to this process which involved him into a crisis of legitimacy, massacre of all the male members of the Ottoman dynasty, made the situation worse. Hence, aiming to resolve the crisis, Salim I took an offensivereligious policy against Shiites and Shah Isma’il. However, Shah Isma’il avoiding from military confrontation, Salim raided to the Safavid realm that led to the battle of Chaldiran.

The second period of Indian Tiymuri dynasty(1118 -1274 AH.), is flourished by numerous historical works. The book History Of Kibchak Khani has been written by kibchak Khan, a Tiymuri commander and including new information about the events of his time. It is a general history in Persian and its style of writing is simple, smooth and unpretentious. The author has attempted to write all of the human history in a brief single volume. In the history of Islam, author has oriented his look toward the East, and especially has focused on the events of three neighbouring areas: Iran, Central Asia and India. The book includes useful information about the Kazaks, Kirgiz and Uzbeks. In spite of the paucity of sources about the Shiybani government, he demonstrated the detailed reports about its two branches (Abu- al Khiyriyan and Arab-shahiyan / Djaniyan), who had ruled in Transoxiana and consequently, it makes his work significant.

The cause and significance of the immigration of ‘Amilis ‘ulama to Iran in Safavid era is a polemical topic among the scholars of oriental studies in the last few decades. Some of them agreed with Edward Browne who believed that the paucity of shi’i sources and ‘ulama in Iran was the main reason for the invitation by Safavid kings. Most of the pioneer scholars such as Roger Savory, Albert Hourani and among the youngers, Rula Jurdi Abisaab supported this assumption. On the other hand, some scholars approved Andrew Newman viewpoint that diminished the importance of the immigration and maintained that the main reason for the invitation of ‘Amilis ulama by Shah Isma’il was since the Shi’i‘ulama of Bahrain and Irak denied and underestimated this invitation and accused the Safavid kings to extremism. Meanwhile, Abissab and Newman are both the representatives of those two theories among the scholars. It seems that the differentiate is derived from the distinctive frameworks of their studies. While Newman considered the issue in a ‘Usuli-Akhbari framework, Abissab used the same information and evidence in a Safavid-Ottoman framework. In this article, both viewpoints will be compared and assimilated.

The critical analysis of Islamic sources in Europe during the nineteenth century led to a sense of suspicion and distrust toward the whole narrative and historical reference books among western scholars who studied Islamic history and sirah. In spite of the pessimistic consequences in the first half of twentieth century, several books about The Prophet were written in which their authors, although, admitted the suspicious validity and reliability of narrations on the Prophet’s life, they believed that through a critical evaluation, it is possible to compile a reliable account on The Prophet life. One of these critical biographies is the book “The problem of Muhammad” written by French orientalist Regis Blachere (1900 – 1973). Analysing Blachere’s views on The Prophet’s life before his prophetic mission shows that Blachere tried to provide an objective and scholarly biography of The Prophet, based on Koran (the only existing reference from The Prophet time), the valid documents, and some information in the field of linguistics, anthropology, and religion's heritage, etc. But the result of his efforts is a sīrah, in parts of which his hypothesis, as well as his personal interpretations based on his intellectual views observed.